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Alexander III the Great – King of Macedonia 336-323 B.C.
Bronze 15mm (3.24 grams) Amphipolis mint: 336-323 B.C.
Reference: Price 338; Sear 6744 cf.; Forrer/Weber 2150 cf.
Head of Apollo right, hair bound with tainia.
Horse prancing right; ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΥ above,
E below.
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Apollo Belvedere
,
ca. 120–140 CE
Apollo
is one of the most important and complex of the
Olympian deities
in
ancient Greek
and
Roman religion
,
Greek
and
Roman mythology
, and
Greco
–Roman
Neopaganism
. The ideal of the
kouros
(a beardless, athletic youth),
Apollo has been variously recognized as a god of light and the sun, truth and
prophecy, healing, plague, music, poetry, and more. Apollo is the son of
Zeus and Leto
, and has a twin sister, the chaste
huntress Artemis
. Apollo is known in Greek-influenced
Etruscan mythology
as Apulu.
As
the patron of Delphi
(Pythian Apollo), Apollo was an
oracular
god—the prophetic deity of the
Delphic Oracle
. Medicine and healing are
associated with Apollo, whether through the god himself or mediated through his
son Asclepius
, yet Apollo was also seen as a god
who could bring ill-health and deadly
plague
. Amongst the god’s custodial charges,
Apollo became associated with dominion over
colonists
, and as the patron defender of herds
and flocks. As the leader of the
Muses (Apollon Musegetes) and director of their choir, Apollo
functioned as the patron god of music and poetry.
Hermes
created the
lyre for him, and the instrument became a common
attribute of Apollo
. Hymns sung to Apollo were
called paeans
.
Apollo (left) and
Artemis
.
Brygos
(potter signed), Tondo of an
Attic red-figure cup c. 470 BC,
Musée du Louvre
.
In Hellenistic times, especially during the 3rd century BCE, as Apollo
Helios he became identified among Greeks with
Helios
,
Titan
god of the sun
, and his sister Artemis
similarly equated with
Selene
, Titan
goddess of the moon
In Latin texts, on the other hand,
Joseph Fontenrose
declared himself unable to
find any conflation of Apollo with
Sol
among the
Augustan poets
of the 1st century, not even in
the conjurations of Aeneas
and
Latinus
in
Aeneid
XII (161–215).
Apollo and Helios/Sol remained separate beings in literary and mythological
texts until the 3rd century CE.
Origins
The Omphalos
in the Museum of
Delphi
.
The cult centers of Apollo in Greece,
Delphi
and
Delos
, date from the 8th century BCE. The Delos
sanctuary was primarily dedicated to
Artemis
, Apollo’s twin sister. At Delphi,
Apollo was venerated as the slayer of
Pytho
. For the Greeks, Apollo was all the Gods
in one and through the centuries he acquired different functions which could
originate from different gods. In
archaic Greece
he was the
prophet
, the oracular god who in older times
was connected with “healing”. In
classical Greece
he was the god of light and of
music, but in popular religion he had a strong function to keep away evil.
From his eastern-origin Apollo brought the art of inspection from “symbols
and omina
” (σημεία και τέρατα : semeia kai
terata), and of the observation of the
omens of the days. The inspiration oracular-cult was probably
introduced from Anatolia
. The
ritualism
belonged to Apollo from the
beginning. The Greeks created the
legalism
, the supervision of the orders of the
gods, and the demand for moderation and harmony. Apollo became the god of
shining youth, the protector of music, spiritual-life, moderation and
perceptible order. The improvement of the old
Anatolian
god, and his elevation to an
intellectual sphere, may be considered an achievement of the
Greek
people.
Healer and
god-protector from evil
The function of Apollo as a “healer” is connected with
Paean
, the physician of the Gods
in the Iliad
, who seems to come from a more
primitive religion. Paeοn is probably connected with the
Mycenean
Pa-ja-wo, but the etymology is the
only evidence. He did not have a separate cult, but he was the personification
of the holy magic-song sung by the magicians that was supposed to cure disease.
Later the Greeks knew the original meaning of the relevant song “paean”.
The magicians were also called “seer-doctors”, and they used an
ecstatic prophetic art which was used exactly by the god Apollo at the oracles.
In the Iliad, Apollo is the healer under the gods, but he is also the
bringer of disease and death with his arrows, similar to the function of the
terrible
Vedic
god of disease
Rudra
.He sends a terrible plague to the
Achaeans
. The god who sends a disease can also
prevent from it, therefore when it stops they make a purifying ceremony and
offer him an “hecatomb” to ward off evil. When the oath of his priest appeases,
they pray and with a song they call their own god, the beautiful Paean.
Some common epithets of Apollo as a healer are “paion” , “epikourios”, “oulios”, and “loimios” . In
classical times, his strong function in popular religion was to keep away evil,
and was therefore called “apotropaios” and “alexikakos” ,
throw away the evil).
In later writers, the word, usually spelled “Paean”, becomes a mere epithet of
Apollo in his capacity as a god of
healing
.
Homer illustrated Paeon the god, and the song both of
apotropaic
thanksgiving or triumph. Such songs were originally addressed to
Apollo, and afterwards to other gods: to
Dionysus
, to Apollo
Helios
, to Apollo’s son
Asclepius
the healer. About the 4th century
BCE, the paean became merely a formula of adulation; its object was either to
implore protection against disease and misfortune, or to offer thanks after such
protection had been rendered. It was in this way that Apollo had become
recognised as the god of music. Apollo’s role as the slayer of the
Python
led to his association with battle and
victory; hence it became the
Roman
custom for a paean to be sung by an army
on the march and before entering into battle, when a fleet left the harbour, and
also after a victory had been won.
Oracular cult
Columns of the
Temple of Apollo
at Delphi, Greece.
Unusually among the Olympic deities, Apollo had two cult sites that had
widespread influence: Delos
and
Delphi
. In cult practice,
Delian Apollo
and
Pythian Apollo
(the Apollo of Delphi) were so
distinct that they might both have shrines in the same locality.Apollo’s
cult
was already fully established when written
sources commenced, about 650 BCE. Apollo became extremely important to the Greek
world as an oracular deity in the
archaic period
, and the frequency of
theophoric names
such as Apollodorus or
Apollonios and cities named Apollonia testify to his popularity.
Oracular sanctuaries to Apollo were established in other sites. In the 2nd and
3rd century CE, those at
Didyma
and
Clarus
pronounced the so-called “theological
oracles”, in which Apollo confirms that all deities are aspects or servants of
an
all-encompassing, highest deity
. “In the 3rd
century, Apollo fell silent.
Julian the Apostate
(359 – 61) tried to revive
the Delphic oracle, but failed
Alexander III of Macedon (20/21 July 356 – 10/11 June 323 BC),
commonly known as Alexander the Great (Greek:
Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ Μέγας, Aléxandros ho Mégasiii[›]
from the Greek ἀλέξω alexo “to
defend, help” + ἀνήρ aner “man”),
was a king of
Macedon
, a state in northern
ancient Greece
. Born in
Pella
in 356 BC, Alexander was tutored by
Aristotle
until the age of 16. By the age of
thirty, he had created one of the
largest empires
of the
ancient world
, stretching from the
Ionian Sea
to the
Himalayas
.He was undefeated in battle and is
considered one of history’s most successful commanders.
Alexander
succeeded his father,
Philip II of Macedon
, to the throne in 336 BC
after Philip was assassinated. Upon Philip’s death, Alexander inherited a strong
kingdom and an experienced army. He was awarded the generalship of Greece and
used this authority to launch his father’s military expansion plans. In 334 BC,
he invaded
Persian
-ruled
Asia Minor
and began a
series of campaigns
that lasted ten years.
Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of decisive battles, most
notably the battles of
Issus
and
Gaugamela
. He subsequently overthrew the
Persian King
Darius III
and conquered the entirety of the
Persian Empire
. At that point, his empire
stretched from the
Adriatic Sea
to the
Indus River
.
Seeking to reach the “ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea”, he
invaded India
in 326 BC, but was eventually
forced to turn back at the demand of his troops. Alexander died in
Babylon
in 323 BC, without executing a series
of planned campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of
Arabia
. In the years following his death, a
series of civil wars tore his empire apart, resulting in several states ruled by
the Diadochi
, Alexander’s surviving generals and
heirs.
Alexander’s legacy includes the
cultural diffusion
his conquests engendered. He
founded some
twenty cities that bore his name
, most notably
Alexandria
in Egypt. Alexander’s settlement of
Greek colonists and the resulting spread of Greek culture in the east resulted
in a new
Hellenistic civilization
, aspects of which were
still evident in the traditions of the
Byzantine Empire
in the mid-15th century.
Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mold of
Achilles
, and he features prominently in the
history and myth of Greek and non-Greek cultures. He became the measure against
which military leaders compared themselves, and
military academies
throughout the world still
teach his tactics.
Early life
Lineage and childhood
Alexander was born on the 6th day of the ancient Greek month of
Hekatombaion
, in
Pella
, the capital of the
Ancient Greek
Kingdom of Macedon
.He was the son of the king
of Macedon,
Philip II
, and his fourth wife,
Olympias
, the daughter of
Neoptolemus I
, king of
Epirus
. Although Philip had seven or eight
wives, Olympias was his principal wife for some time, likely a result of giving
birth to Alexander.
Philip II
of Macedon
, Alexander’s father.
On the day that Alexander was born, Philip was preparing a
siege
on the city of
Potidea
on the peninsula of
Chalcidice
. That same day, Philip received news
that his general
Parmenion
had defeated the combined
Illyrian
and
Paeonian
armies, and that his horses had won at
the
Olympic Games
. It was also said that on this
day, the
Temple of Artemis
in
Ephesus
, one of the
Seven Wonders of the World
, burnt down. This
led
Hegesias of Magnesia
to say that it had burnt
down because Artemis
was away, attending the birth of
Alexander.
Bust of a young Alexander the Great from the Hellenistic era,
British
Museum
In his early years, Alexander was raised by a nurse,
Lanike
, sister of Alexander’s future general
Cleitus the Black
. Later in his childhood,
Alexander was tutored by the strict
Leonidas
, a relative of his mother, and by
Philip’s general
Lysimachus
. Alexander was raised in the manner
of noble Macedonian youths, learning to read, play the
lyre, ride, fight, and hunt.
When Alexander was ten years old, a trader from
Thessaly
brought Philip a horse, which he
offered to sell for thirteen
talents
. The horse refused to be mounted and
Philip ordered it away. Alexander however, detecting the horse’s fear of its own
shadow, asked to tame the horse, which he eventually managed. Philip, overjoyed
at this display of courage and ambition, kissed his son tearfully, declaring:
“My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too
small for you”, and bought the horse for him.Alexander named it
Bucephalas
, meaning “ox-head”. Bucephalas
carried Alexander as far as
Pakistan
. When the animal died at age thirty,
Alexander named a city after him,
Bucephala
.
When Alexander was 13, Philip began to search for a
tutor
, chose
Aristotle
and provided the Temple of the Nymphs
at Mieza
as a classroom. In return for teaching
Alexander, Philip agreed to rebuild Aristotle’s hometown of
Stageira
, which Philip had razed, and to
repopulate it by buying and freeing the ex-citizens who were slaves, or
pardoning those who were in exile.
Mieza was like a boarding school for Alexander and the children of Macedonian
nobles, such as
Ptolemy
,
Hephaistion
, and
Cassander
. Many of these students would become
his friends and future generals, and are often known as the ‘Companions’.
Aristotle taught Alexander and his companions about medicine, philosophy,
morals, religion, logic, and art. Under Aristotle’s tutelage, Alexander
developed a passion for the works of
Homer
, and in particular the
Iliad
; Aristotle gave him an annotated
copy, which Alexander later carried on his campaigns.
At age 16, Alexander’s education under Aristotle ended. Philip waged war
against Byzantion
, leaving Alexander in charge as
regent
and
heir apparent
. During Philip’s absence, the
Thracian
Maedi
revolted against Macedonia. Alexander
responded quickly, driving them from their territory. He colonized it with
Greeks, and founded a city named
Alexandropolis
.
Upon Philip’s return, he dispatched Alexander with a small force to subdue
revolts in southern Thrace
. Campaigning against the Greek city of
Perinthus
, Alexander is reported to have saved
his father’s life. Meanwhile, the city of
Amphissa
began to work lands that were sacred
to Apollo
near
Delphi
, a sacrilege that gave Philip the
opportunity to further intervene in Greek affairs. Still occupied in Thrace, he
ordered Alexander to muster an army for a campaign in Greece. Concerned that
other Greek states might intervene, Alexander made it look as though he was
preparing to attack Illyria instead. During this turmoil, the Illyrians invaded
Macedonia, only to be repelled by Alexander.
Philip and his army joined his son in 338 BC, and they marched south through
Thermopylae
, taking it after stubborn
resistance from its Theban garrison. They went on to occupy the city of
Elatea
, only a few days’ march from both Athens
and Thebes. The Athenians, led by
Demosthenes
, voted to seek alliance with Thebes
against Macedonia. Both Athens and Philip sent embassies to win Thebes’ favor,
but Athens won the contest.Philip marched on Amphissa (ostensibly acting on the
request of the
Amphictyonic League
), capturing the mercenaries
sent there by
Demosthenes
and accepting the city’s surrender.
Philip then returned to Elatea, sending a final offer of peace to Athens and
Thebes, who both rejected it.
As Philip marched south, his opponents blocked him near
Chaeronea
,
Boeotia
. During the ensuing
Battle of Chaeronea
, Philip commanded the right
wing and Alexander the left, accompanied by a group of Philip’s trusted
generals. According to the ancient sources, the two sides fought bitterly for
some time. Philip deliberately commanded his troops to retreat, counting on the
untested Athenian
hoplites
to follow, thus breaking their line.
Alexander was the first to break the Theban lines, followed by Philip’s
generals. Having damaged the enemy’s cohesion, Philip ordered his troops to
press forward and quickly routed them. With the Athenians lost, the Thebans were
surrounded. Left to fight alone, they were defeated.
After the victory at Chaeronea, Philip and Alexander marched unopposed into
the Peloponnese, welcomed by all cities; however, when they reached
Sparta
, they were refused, but did not resort
to war.At
Corinth
, Philip established a “Hellenic
Alliance” (modeled on the old
anti-Persian alliance
of the
Greco-Persian Wars
), which included most Greek
city-states except Sparta. Philip was then named
Hegemon
(often translated as “Supreme
Commander”) of this league (known by modern scholars as the
League of Corinth
), and announced his plans to
attack the
Persian Empire
.
When Philip returned to Pella, he fell in love with and married
Cleopatra Eurydice
, the niece of his general
Attalus
. The marriage made Alexander’s position
as heir less secure, since any son of Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully
Macedonian heir, while Alexander was only half-Macedonian.
Alexander fled Macedon with his mother, dropping her off with her brother,
King
Alexander I of Epirus
in
Dodona
, capital of the
Molossians
.He continued to Illyria, where he
sought refuge with the Illyrian King and was treated as a guest, despite having
defeated them in battle a few years before. However, it appears Philip never
intended to disown his politically and militarily trained son. Accordingly,
Alexander returned to Macedon after six months due to the efforts of a family
friend,
Demaratus
, who mediated between the two
parties.
In 336 BC, while at
Aegae
attending the wedding of his daughter
Cleopatra
to Olympias’s brother,
Alexander I of Epirus
, Philip was assassinated
by the captain of his
bodyguards
,
Pausanias
. As Pausanias tried to escape, he
tripped over a vine and was killed by his pursuers, including two of Alexander’s
companions, Perdiccas
and
Leonnatus
. Alexander was proclaimed king by the
nobles and
army
at the age of 20.
Alexander began his reign by eliminating potential rivals to the throne. He
had his cousin, the former
Amyntas IV
, executed. He also had two
Macedonian princes from the region of
Lyncestis
killed, but spared a third,
Alexander Lyncestes
. Olympias had Cleopatra
Eurydice and Europa, her daughter by Philip, burned alive. When Alexander
learned about this, he was furious. Alexander also ordered the murder of
Attalus, who was in command of the advance guard of the army in Asia Minor and
Cleopatra’s uncle.
News of Philip’s death roused many states into revolt, including Thebes,
Athens, Thessaly, and the Thracian tribes north of Macedon. When news of the
revolts reached Alexander, he responded quickly. Though advised to use
diplomacy, Alexander mustered the Macedonian cavalry of 3,000 and rode south
towards Thessaly. He found the Thessalian army occupying the pass between
Mount Olympus
and
Mount Ossa
, and ordered his men to ride over
Mount Ossa. When the Thessalians awoke the next day, they found Alexander in
their rear and promptly surrendered, adding their cavalry to Alexander’s force.
He then continued south towards the
Peloponnese
.
Alexander stopped at Thermopylae, where he was recognized as the leader of
the Amphictyonic League before heading south to
Corinth
. Athens sued for peace and Alexander
pardoned the rebels. The famous
encounter between Alexander and Diogenes the Cynic
occurred during Alexander’s stay in Corinth. When Alexander asked Diogenes what
he could do for him, the philosopher disdainfully asked Alexander to stand a
little to the side, as he was blocking the sunlight. This reply apparently
delighted Alexander, who is reported to have said “But verily, if I were not
Alexander, I would like to be Diogenes.” At Corinth Alexander took the title of
Hegemon (“leader”), and like Philip, was appointed commander for the
coming war against Persia. He also received news of a Thracian uprising.[53][58]
Alexander’s army crossed the
Hellespont
in 334 BC with approximately 48,100
soldiers, 6,100 cavalry and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering
38,000,drawn from Macedon and various Greek city-states, mercenaries, and
feudally raised soldiers from
Thrace
,
Paionia
, and
Illyria
. He showed his intent to conquer the
entirety of the Persian Empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying he
accepted Asia as a gift from the gods. This also showed Alexander’s eagerness to
fight, in contrast to his father’s preference for diplomacy.
After an initial victory against Persian forces at the
Battle of the Granicus
, Alexander accepted the
surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of
Sardis
; he then proceeded along the
Ionian
coast. Though Alexander believed in his
divine right to expend the lives of men in battle, he did experience sorrow, as
those who died were rewarded generously. He did not directly influence the
culture of the Persians they did not feel the need to begin a rebellion as their
men and rulers were treated with proper respect.
Alexander, left, and
Hephaestion
, right
The Levant and Syria
Alexander journeyed south but was met by Darius’ significantly larger army
which he easily defeated, causing Darius to panic. Although he was chased by
some troops ‘Alexander treated them (his family) with the respect out of
consideration’ which demonstrated his continued generosity and kindness towards
those he conquered.Darius fled the battle, causing his army to collapse, and
left behind his wife, his two daughters, his mother
Sisygambis
, and a fabulous treasure.He offered
a peace treaty
that included the lands he had
already lost, and a ransom of 10,000
talents
for his family. Alexander replied that
since he was now king of Asia, it was he alone who decided territorial
divisions.
Alexander proceeded to take possession of
Syria
, and most of the coast of the
Levant
. In the following year, 332 BC, he was
forced to attack
Tyre
, which he captured after a long and
difficult
siege
.Alexander massacred the men of military
age and sold the women and children into
slavery
.
Egypt
When Alexander destroyed Tyre, most of the towns on the route to Egypt
quickly capitulated, with the exception of
Gaza. The stronghold at Gaza was heavily fortified and built on a
hill, requiring a siege. Alexander came upon the city only to be met with a
surprising resistance and fortification. When ‘his engineers pointed out to him
that because of the height of the mound it would be impossible… this encouraged
Alexander all the more to make the attempt’ . The divine right that Alexander
believed he had gave him confidence of a miracle occurring.After three
unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold fell, but not before Alexander had
received a serious shoulder wound. As in Tyre, men of military age were put to
the sword and the women and children sold into slavery.
Jerusalem instead opened its gates in surrender, and according to
Josephus
, Alexander was shown the
Book of Daniel
‘s prophecy, presumably chapter
8, which described a mighty Greek king who would conquer the Persian Empire. He
spared Jerusalem and pushed south into Egypt.
Alexander advanced on Egypt in later 332 BC, where he was regarded as a
liberator.He was pronounced the new “master of the Universe” and son of the
deity of Amun
at the
Oracle
of
Siwa Oasis
in the
Libyan
desert.Henceforth, Alexander often
referred to
Zeus-Ammon
as his true father, and subsequent
currency depicted him adorned with rams horn as a symbol of his divinity. During
his stay in Egypt, he founded
Alexandria-by-Egypt
, which would become the
prosperous capital of the
Ptolemaic Kingdom
after his death.
Bust of
Alexander
the Great
as Helios (Musei
Capitolini)
Assyria and Babylonia
Leaving Egypt in 331 BC, Alexander marched eastward into
Mesopotamia
(now northern
Iraq) and again defeated Darius, at the
Battle of Gaugamela
. Darius once more fled the
field, and Alexander chased him as far as
Arbela
. Gaugamela would be the final and
decisive encounter between the two. Darius fled over the mountains to
Ecbatana
(modern
Hamedan
), while Alexander captured
Babylon
.
Persia
From Babylon, Alexander went to
Susa, one of the
Achaemenid
capitals, and captured its legendary
treasury.[88]
He sent the bulk of his army to the Persian ceremonial capital of
Persepolis
via the
Royal Road
. Alexander himself took selected
troops on the direct route to the city. He had to storm the pass of the
Persian Gates
(in the modern
Zagros Mountains
) which had been blocked by a
Persian army under
Ariobarzanes
and then hurried to Persepolis
before its garrison could loot the treasury.[89]
Alexander fighting the Persian king
Darius III
.
From
Alexander Mosaic
,
Naples National
Archaeological Museum
On entering Persepolis, Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for
several days.Alexander stayed in Persepolis for five months. During his stay a
fire broke out in the eastern palace of
Xerxes
and spread to the rest of the city.
Possible causes include a drunken accident or deliberate revenge for the burning
of the
Acropolis of Athens
during the
Second Persian War
.
Fall of the
Empire and the East
Alexander then chased Darius, first into Media, and then Parthia.The Persian
king no longer controlled his own destiny, and was taken prisoner by
Bessus
, his
Bactrian
satrap and kinsman.As Alexander
approached, Bessus had his men fatally stab the Great King and then declared
himself Darius’ successor as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia
to launch a
guerrilla
campaign against Alexander. Alexander
buried Darius’ remains next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a regal funeral.He
claimed that, while dying, Darius had named him as his successor to the
Achaemenid throne. The Achaemenid Empire is normally considered to have fallen
with Darius.
Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him.
This campaign, initially against Bessus, turned into a grand tour of central
Asia. Alexander founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including
modern Kandahar
in Afghanistan, and
Alexandria Eschate
(“The Furthest”) in modern
Tajikistan
. The campaign took Alexander through
Media
,
Parthia
,
Aria
(West Afghanistan),
Drangiana
,
Arachosia
(South and Central Afghanistan),
Bactria
(North and Central Afghanistan), and
Scythia
.
Spitamenes
, who held an undefined position in
the satrapy of Sogdiana, in 329 BC betrayed Bessus to
Ptolemy
, one of Alexander’s trusted companions,
and Bessus was executed. However, when, at some point later, Alexander was on
the Jaxartes
dealing with an incursion by a horse
nomad army, Spitamenes raised Sogdiana in revolt. Alexander personally defeated
the Scythians at the
Battle of Jaxartes
and immediately launched a
campaign against Spitamenes, defeating him in the Battle of Gabai. After the
defeat, Spitamenes was killed by his own men, who then sued for peace.The empire
began falling as military leaders and eventually Alexander died.
Problems and plots
During this time, Alexander took the Persian title “King of Kings” (Shahanshah)
and adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the
custom of
proskynesis
, either a symbolic kissing of
the hand, or prostration on the ground, that Persians showed to their social
superiors. The Greeks regarded the gesture as the province of
deities
and believed that Alexander meant to
deify himself by requiring it. This cost him the sympathies of many of his
countrymen, and he eventually abandoned it.
A plot against his life was revealed, and one of his officers,
Philotas
, was executed for failing to alert
Alexander. The death of the son necessitated the death of the father, and thus
Parmenion
, who had been charged with guarding
the treasury at Ecbatana
, was assassinated at Alexander’s
command, to prevent attempts at vengeance. Most infamously, Alexander personally
killed the man who had saved his life at Granicus,
Cleitus the Black
, during a violent drunken
altercation at
Maracanda
(modern day
Samarkand
in
Uzbekistan
), in which Cleitus accused Alexander
of several judgemental mistakes and most especially, of having forgot the
Macedonian ways in favour of a corrupt oriental lifestyle.
Macedon in
Alexander’s absence
When Alexander set out for Asia, he left his general
Antipater
, an experienced military and
political leader and part of Philip II’s “Old Guard”, in charge of Macedon.
Alexander’s sacking of Thebes ensured that Greece remained quiet during his
absence. The one exception was a call to arms by Spartan king
Agis III
in 331 BC, whom Antipater defeated and
killed in battle at
Megalopolis
the following year. Antipater
referred the Spartans’ punishment to the League of Corinth, which then deferred
to Alexander, who chose to pardon them. There was also considerable friction
between Antipater and Olympias, and each complained to Alexander about the
other.
In general, Greece enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity during
Alexander’s campaign in Asia. Alexander sent back vast sums from his conquest,
which stimulated the economy and increased trade across his empire.However,
Alexander’s constant demands for troops and the migration of Macedonians
throughout his empire depleted Macedon’s manpower, greatly weakening it in the
years after Alexander, and ultimately led to its subjugation by Rome.
Indian campaign
After the death of
Spitamenes
and his marriage to Roxana (Roshanak
in
Bactrian
) to cement relations with his new
satrapies, Alexander turned to the
Indian subcontinent
. He invited the
chieftains
of the former satrapy of
Gandhara
, in the north of what is now
Pakistan
, to come to him and submit to his
authority.
Omphis
, ruler of
Taxila
, whose kingdom extended from the
Indus
to the
Hydaspes
, complied, but the chieftains of some
hill clans, including the
Aspasioi
and
Assakenoi
sections of the
Kambojas
(known in Indian texts also as
Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas), refused to submit.In the winter of 327/326 BC,
Alexander personally led a campaign against these clans; the Aspasioi of
Kunar
valleys
, the Guraeans of the
Guraeus
valley, and the Assakenoi of the
Swat
and
Buner
valleys.A fierce contest ensued with the
Aspasioi in which Alexander was wounded in the shoulder by a dart, but
eventually the Aspasioi lost. Alexander then faced the Assakenoi, who fought in
the strongholds of Massaga, Ora and
Aornos
.The fort of Massaga was reduced only
after days of bloody fighting, in which Alexander was wounded seriously in the
ankle.
After Aornos, Alexander crossed the Indus and fought and won an epic battle
against King Porus
, who ruled a region in the
Punjab
, in the
Battle of the Hydaspes
in 326 BC. Alexander was
impressed by Porus’s bravery, and made him an ally. He appointed Porus as
satrap, and added to Porus’ territory land that he did not previously own.
Choosing a local helped him control these lands so distant from Greece.Alexander
founded two cities on opposite sides of the
Hydaspes
river, naming one
Bucephala
, in honor of his horse, who died
around this time.The other was
Nicaea
(Victory) located at the site of modern
day Mong, Punjab
.
Revolt of the army
East of Porus’ kingdom, near the
Ganges River
, were the
Nanda Empire
of
Magadha
and further east the
Gangaridai Empire
of
Bengal
. Fearing the prospect of facing other
large armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, Alexander’s army mutinied at
the Hyphasis River
, refusing to march farther east.
This river thus marks the easternmost extent of Alexander’s conquests. Alexander
tried to persuade his soldiers to march farther, but his general
Coenus
pleaded with him to change his opinion
and return; the men, he said, “longed to again see their parents, their wives
and children, their homeland”. Alexander eventually agreed and turned south,
marching along the
Indus
. Along the way his army conquered the
Malli
clans (in modern day
Multan
) and other Indian tribes.
Alexander sent much of his army to
Carmania
(modern southern
Iran) with general
Craterus
, and commissioned a fleet to explore
the Persian Gulf
shore under his admiral
Nearchus
, while he led the rest back to Persia
through the more difficult southern route along the
Gedrosian Desert
and
Makran
(now part of southern Iran and
Pakistan).Alexander reached Susa in 324 BC, but not before losing many men to
the harsh desert.
Last years in Persia
Discovering that many of his
satraps
and military governors had misbehaved
in his absence, Alexander executed several of them as examples on his way to
Susa. As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers,
and announced that he would send over-aged and disabled veterans back to
Macedon, led by Craterus. His troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at
the town of Opis
. They refused to be sent away and
criticized his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of
Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units.
Death and succession
On either 10 or 11 June 323 BC, Alexander died in the palace of
Nebuchadnezzar II
, in
Babylon
, at age 32. Details of the death differ
slightly – Plutarch
‘s account is that roughly 14 days
before his death, Alexander entertained admiral
Nearchus
, and spent the night and next day
drinking with
Medius of Larissa
.He developed a fever, which
worsened until he was unable to speak. Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian and Justin
all mentioned the theory that Alexander was poisoned.
The strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days
passed between the start of his illness and his death; such long-acting poisons
were probably not available. In 2010, however, a new theory proposed that the
circumstances of his death were compatible with poisoning by water of the river
Styx (Mavroneri)
that contained
calicheamicin
, a dangerous compound produced by
bacteria
.
Several
natural causes
(diseases) have been suggested,
including malaria
and
typhoid fever
.
After death
Alexander’s body was laid in a gold anthropoid
sarcophagus
that was filled with honey, which
was in turn placed in a gold casket. While Alexander’s funeral cortege was on
its way to Macedon, Ptolemy stole it and took it to Memphis. His successor,
Ptolemy II Philadelphus
, transferred the
sarcophagus to Alexandria, where it remained until at least
late Antiquity
.
Ptolemy IX Lathyros
, one of Ptolemy’s final
successors, replaced Alexander’s sarcophagus with a glass one so he could
convert the original to coinage.
Pompey
,
Julius Caesar
and
Augustus
all visited the tomb in Alexandria.
Caligula
was said to have taken Alexander’s
breastplate from the tomb for his own use. In c. AD 200, Emperor
Septimius Severus
closed Alexander’s tomb to
the public. His son and successor,
Caracalla
, a great admirer, visited the tomb
during his own reign. After this, details on the fate of the tomb are hazy.
Division of the empire
Alexander’s death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached
Greece, they were not immediately believed.Alexander had no obvious or
legitimate heir, his son Alexander IV by Roxane being born after Alexander’s
death.According to Diodorus, Alexander’s companions asked him on his deathbed to
whom he bequeathed his kingdom; his laconic reply was “tôi kratistôi”—”to the
strongest”.
In 321 BC, Macedonian unity collapsed, and 40 years of war between “The
Successors” (Diadochi) ensued before the Hellenistic world settled into
four stable power blocks: the
Ptolemaic Kingdom
of Egypt, the
Seleucid Empire
in the east, the Kingdom of
Pergamon
in Asia Minor, and Macedon. In the
process, both Alexander IV and Philip III were murdered.
Character
Alexander earned the epithet “the Great” due to his unparalleled success as a
military commander. He never lost a battle, despite typically being
outnumbered.This was due to use of terrain,
phalanx
and cavalry tactics, bold strategy, and
the fierce loyalty of his troops.The
Macedonian phalanx
, armed with the
sarissa
, a spear 6 metres (20 ft) long, had
been developed and perfected by Philip II through rigorous training, and
Alexander used its speed and maneuverability to great effect against larger but
more disparate Persian forces.Alexander also recognized the potential for
disunity among his diverse army, which employed various languages and weapons.
He overcame this by being personally involved in battle,in the manner of a
Macedonian king.
When faced with opponents who used unfamiliar fighting techniques, such as in
Central Asia and India, Alexander adapted his forces to his opponents’ style.
Thus, in Bactria
and
Sogdiana
, Alexander successfully used his
javelin throwers and archers to prevent outflanking movements, while massing his
cavalry at the center. In India, confronted by Porus’ elephant corps, the
Macedonians opened their ranks to envelop the elephants and used their sarissas
to strike upwards and dislodge the elephants’ handlers.
Physical appearance:
Greek historian Arrian
described Alexander as:
The strong, handsome commander with one eye dark as the night and one
blue as the sky.
Alexander suffered from
heterochromia iridum
: that one eye was dark and
the other light.
Personality
Some of Alexander’s strongest personality traits formed in response to his
parents.His mother had huge ambitions, and encouraged him to believe it was his
destiny to conquer the Persian Empire. Olympias’ influence instilled a sense of
destiny in him, and Plutarch tells us that his ambition “kept his spirit serious
and lofty in advance of his years”. However, his father Philip was Alexander’s
most immediate and influential role model, as the young Alexander watched him
campaign practically every year, winning victory after victory while ignoring
severe wounds.Alexander’s relationship with his father forged the competitive
side of his personality; he had a need to out-do his father, illustrated by his
reckless behavior in battle. While Alexander worried that his father would leave
him “no great or brilliant achievement to be displayed to the world”, he also
downplayed his father’s achievements to his companions.
According to Plutarch, among Alexander’s traits were a violent temper and
rash, impulsive nature, which undoubtedly contributed to some of his decisions.
Although Alexander was stubborn and did not respond well to orders from his
father, he was open to reasoned debate. He had a calmer side—perceptive,
logical, and calculating. He had a great desire for knowledge, a love for
philosophy, and was an avid reader.This was no doubt in part due to Aristotle’s
tutelage; Alexander was intelligent and quick to learn. His intelligent and
rational side was amply demonstrated by his ability and success as a general.
Alexander was erudite and patronized both arts and sciences.However, he had
little interest in sports or the
Olympic games
(unlike his father), seeking only
the
Homeric
ideals of honor (timê) and glory
(kudos). He had great
charisma
and force of personality,
characteristics which made him a great leader. His unique abilities were further
demonstrated by the inability of any of his generals to unite Macedonia and
retain the Empire after his death – only Alexander had the ability to do so.
During his final years, and especially after the death of Hephaestion,
Alexander began to exhibit signs of
megalomania
and
paranoia
.His extraordinary achievements,
coupled with his own ineffable sense of destiny and the flattery of his
companions, may have combined to produce this effect.
He appears to have believed himself a deity, or at least sought to deify
himself. Olympias always insisted to him that he was the son of Zeus,a theory
apparently confirmed to him by the oracle of Amun at
Siwa
. He began to identify himself as the son
of Zeus-Ammon.Alexander adopted elements of Persian dress and customs at court,
notably
proskynesis
, a practice that Macedonians
disapproved, and were loath to perform. This behavior cost him the sympathies of
many of his countrymen.However, Alexander also was a pragmatic ruler who
understood the difficulties of ruling culturally disparate peoples, many of whom
lived in kingdoms where the king was divine.Thus, rather than megalomania, his
behavior may simply have been a practical attempt at strengthening his rule and
keeping his empire together.
Personal relationships
The central personal relationship of Alexander’s life was with his friend,
general, and bodyguard
Hephaestion
, the son of a Macedonian
noble.Hephaestion’s death devastated Alexander.This event may have contributed
to Alexander’s failing health and detached
mental state
during his final months.
Alexander married twice:
Roxana
, daughter of the
Bactrian
nobleman
Oxyartes
, out of love; and
Stateira II
, a Persian princess and daughter of
Darius III
of Persia, for political reasons. He
apparently had two sons, Alexander IV of Macedon of Roxana and, possibly,
Heracles of Macedon
from his mistress Barsine.
He lost another child when Roxana miscarried at Babylon.
Alexander’s sexuality has been the subject of speculation and controversy. No
ancient sources stated that Alexander had
homosexual
relationships, or that Alexander’s
relationship with Hephaestion was sexual. Aelian, however, writes of Alexander’s
visit to Troy
where “Alexander garlanded the tomb of
Achilles and Hephaestion that of
Patroclus
, the latter riddling that he was a
beloved of Alexander, in just the same way as Patroclus was of Achilles”. Noting
that the word
eromenos
(ancient Greek for beloved) does
not necessarily bear sexual meaning, Alexander may have been bisexual, which in
his time was not controversial.
Influence on Rome
Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans, especially generals,
who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements.
Pompey the Great
adopted the epithet “Magnus”
and even Alexander’s anatole-type haircut, and searched the conquered lands of
the east for Alexander’s 260-year-old cloak, which he then wore as a sign of
greatness.Julius
Caesar dedicated a
Lysippean
equestrian
bronze
statue but replaced Alexander’s head
with his own, while
Octavian
visited Alexander’s tomb in Alexandria
and temporarily changed his seal from a
sphinx
to Alexander’s profile. The emperor
Trajan
also admired Alexander, as did
Nero and
Caracalla
.The Macriani, a Roman family that in
the person of Macrinus
briefly ascended to the imperial
throne, kept images of Alexander on their persons, either on jewelry, or
embroidered into their clothes.
Alexander the Great’s accomplishments and legacy have been depicted in many
cultures. Alexander has figured in both high and popular culture beginning in
his own era to the present day. The Alexander Romance, in particular, has
had a significant impact on portrayals of Alexander in later cultures, from
Persian to medieval European to modern Greek.
Apollo Belvedere
,
ca. 120–140 CE
Apollo is one of the most important and complex of the
Olympian deities
in
ancient Greek
and
Roman religion
,
Greek
and
Roman mythology
, and
Greco
–Roman
Neopaganism
. The ideal of the
kouros
(a beardless, athletic youth),
Apollo has been variously recognized as a god of light and the sun, truth and
prophecy, healing, plague, music, poetry, and more. Apollo is the son of
Zeus and Leto
, and has a twin sister, the chaste
huntress Artemis
. Apollo is known in Greek-influenced
Etruscan mythology
as Apulu.
As the patron of Delphi
(Pythian Apollo), Apollo was an
oracular
god—the prophetic deity of the
Delphic Oracle
. Medicine and healing are
associated with Apollo, whether through the god himself or mediated through his
son Asclepius
, yet Apollo was also seen as a god
who could bring ill-health and deadly
plague
. Amongst the god’s custodial charges,
Apollo became associated with dominion over
colonists
, and as the patron defender of herds
and flocks. As the leader of the
Muses (Apollon Musegetes) and director of their choir, Apollo
functioned as the patron god of music and poetry.
Hermes
created the
lyre for him, and the instrument became a common
attribute of Apollo
. Hymns sung to Apollo were
called paeans
.
Apollo (left) and
Artemis
.
Brygos
(potter signed), Tondo of an
Attic red-figure cup c. 470 BC,
Musée du Louvre
.
In Hellenistic times, especially during the 3rd century BCE, as Apollo
Helios he became identified among Greeks with
Helios
,
Titan
god of the sun
, and his sister Artemis
similarly equated with
Selene
, Titan
goddess of the moon
In Latin texts, on the
other hand,
Joseph Fontenrose
declared himself unable to
find any conflation of Apollo with
Sol
among the
Augustan poets
of the 1st century, not even in
the conjurations of Aeneas
and
Latinus
in
Aeneid
XII (161–215). Apollo and Helios/Sol
remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts until the 3rd
century CE.
Origins
The Omphalos
in the Museum of
Delphi
.
The cult centers of Apollo in Greece,
Delphi
and
Delos
, date from the 8th century BCE. The Delos
sanctuary was primarily dedicated to
Artemis
, Apollo’s twin sister. At Delphi,
Apollo was venerated as the slayer of
Pytho
. For the Greeks, Apollo was all the Gods
in one and through the centuries he acquired different functions which could
originate from different gods. In
archaic Greece
he was the
prophet
, the oracular god who in older times
was connected with “healing”. In
classical Greece
he was the god of light and of
music, but in popular religion he had a strong function to keep away evil.
From his eastern-origin Apollo brought the art of inspection from “symbols
and omina
” (σημεία και τέρατα : semeia kai
terata), and of the observation of the
omens of the days. The inspiration oracular-cult was probably
introduced from Anatolia
. The
ritualism
belonged to Apollo from the
beginning. The Greeks created the
legalism
, the supervision of the orders of the
gods, and the demand for moderation and harmony. Apollo became the god of
shining youth, the protector of music, spiritual-life, moderation and
perceptible order. The improvement of the old
Anatolian
god, and his elevation to an
intellectual sphere, may be considered an achievement of the
Greek
people.
Healer and
god-protector from evil
The function of Apollo as a “healer” is connected with
Paean
, the physician of the Gods in the
Iliad
, who seems to come from a more
primitive religion. Paeοn is probably connected with the
Mycenean
Pa-ja-wo, but the etymology is the
only evidence. He did not have a separate cult, but he was the personification
of the holy magic-song sung by the magicians that was supposed to cure disease.
Later the Greeks knew the original meaning of the relevant song “paean”. The
magicians were also called “seer-doctors”, and they used an ecstatic prophetic
art which was used exactly by the god Apollo at the oracles.
In the Iliad, Apollo is the healer under the gods, but he is also the
bringer of disease and death with his arrows, similar to the function of the
terrible
Vedic
god of disease
Rudra
.He sends a terrible plague to the
Achaeans
. The god who sends a disease can also
prevent from it, therefore when it stops they make a purifying ceremony and
offer him an “hecatomb” to ward off evil. When the oath of his priest appeases,
they pray and with a song they call their own god, the beautiful Paean.
Some common epithets of Apollo as a healer are “paion” , “epikourios”,
“oulios”, and “loimios” . In classical times, his strong function in popular
religion was to keep away evil, and was therefore called “apotropaios” and
“alexikakos” , throw away the evil).
In later writers, the word, usually spelled “Paean”, becomes a
mere epithet of Apollo in his capacity as a god of
healing
.
Homer illustrated Paeon the god, and the song both of
apotropaic
thanksgiving or triumph. Such songs
were originally addressed to Apollo, and afterwards to other gods: to
Dionysus
, to Apollo
Helios
, to Apollo’s son
Asclepius
the healer. About the 4th century
BCE, the paean became merely a formula of adulation; its object was either to
implore protection against disease and misfortune, or to offer thanks after such
protection had been rendered. It was in this way that Apollo had become
recognised as the god of music. Apollo’s role as the slayer of the
Python
led to his association with battle and
victory; hence it became the
Roman
custom for a paean to be sung by an army
on the march and before entering into battle, when a fleet left the harbour, and
also after a victory had been won.
Oracular cult
Columns of the
Temple of Apollo
at Delphi, Greece.
Unusually among the Olympic deities, Apollo had two cult sites that had
widespread influence: Delos
and
Delphi
. In cult practice,
Delian Apollo
and
Pythian Apollo
(the Apollo of Delphi) were so
distinct that they might both have shrines in the same locality.Apollo’s
cult
was already fully established when written
sources commenced, about 650 BCE. Apollo became extremely important to the Greek
world as an oracular deity in the
archaic period
, and the frequency of
theophoric names
such as Apollodorus or
Apollonios and cities named Apollonia testify to his popularity.
Oracular sanctuaries to Apollo were established in other sites. In the 2nd and
3rd century CE, those at
Didyma
and
Clarus
pronounced the so-called “theological
oracles”, in which Apollo confirms that all deities are aspects or servants of
an
all-encompassing, highest deity
. “In the 3rd
century, Apollo fell silent.
Julian the Apostate
(359 – 61) tried to revive
the Delphic oracle, but failed
In
Greek
and
Roman mythology
, Apollo
,
is one of the most important and diverse of the
Olympian deities
. The ideal of the
kouros
(a
beardless youth), Apollo has been variously recognized as a god of light and the
sun; truth and prophecy;
archery
;
medicine and healing; music, poetry, and the arts; and more. Apollo is the son
of Zeus
and
Leto, and has a
twin
sister, the chaste huntress
Artemis
.
Apollo is known in Greek-influenced
Etruscan mythology
as Apulu. Apollo was worshiped in both
ancient Greek
and
Roman religion
, as well as in the modern
Greco
–Roman
Neopaganism
.
As the patron of Delphi
(Pythian Apollo), Apollo was an
oracular
god — the prophetic deity of the
Delphic Oracle
.
Medicine and healing were associated with Apollo, whether through the god
himself or mediated through his son
Asclepius
,
yet Apollo was also seen as a god who could bring ill-health and deadly
plague
as well as one who had the ability to cure. Amongst the god’s
custodial charges, Apollo became associated with dominion over
colonists
, and as the patron defender of herds and flocks. As the leader of
the Muses
(Apollon
Musagetes) and director of their choir, Apollo functioned as the patron god
of music and poetry
.
Hermes
created
the lyre
for him,
and the instrument became a common
attribute
of Apollo. Hymns sung to Apollo were called
paeans
.
In Hellenistic times, especially during the third century BCE, as Apollo
Helios he became identified among Greeks with
Helios
,
god of
the sun
, and his sister Artemis similarly equated with
Selene
,
goddess
of the moon
.
In Latin texts, on the other hand, Joseph Fontenrose declared himself unable to
find any conflation of Apollo with
Sol
among the
Augustan poets
of the first century, not even in the conjurations of
Aeneas
and
Latinus
in
Aeneid
XII
(161–215).
Apollo and Helios/Sol remained separate beings in literary and mythological
texts until the third century CE.
The immense issues of coinage made in the name of Alexander
the Great for a topic which could occupy the pages of a large volume. Obviously
it is not possible, in a work of this scope, to do justice to such a subject. As
in the case of Philip II, coinage in the name of Alexander continued long after
the king’s death. No doubt this was largely due to the lack of an effective
successor to the imperial throne. Almost two decades were to elapse before
Alexander’s generals, his true successors, felt sufficiently secure to take the
title of ‘king’ and to issue coinage in their own names. Although he began his
career as King of Macedon, Alexander spent only the first two years of his reign
in his native kingdom, and by the time of his death, at the age of thirty three,
he ruled a vast empire stretching from Greece to India. Consequently, his
coinage was on an imperial scale, unlike those of his predecessors, and was
struck at a multitude of mints in many lands, often replacing an existing
autonomous series. nevertheless, the Macedonian mint of Amphipolis remained one
of the principal sources of currency. In later ages (3rd-2nd century B.C.) the
types of Alexander’s silver coinage were revived by various cities as they
regained a measure of autonomy from the declining Hellenistic Monarchies.
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