NERO & HERCULES on 54AD Sardes Lydia Authentic Ancient Greek / Roman Coin i56072

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Item: i56072

 

 Authentic Ancient 

Coin of:


Nero

Roman Emperor:  54-68 A.D. –

Bronze 15mm (2.63 grams) of

Sardes in

Lydia
Tiberius Claudius Mnaseas, magistrate.
Reference: RPC 3009
NEPΩN KAICAP, Laureate head right.
EΠI TI MNACЄOY CAPΔIANΩN, Laureate head of 
Hercules right, with lion skin tied around neck.
 

You are bidding on the exact item pictured, 

provided with a Certificate of Authenticity and Lifetime Guarantee of 

Authenticity.


Hercules 
is the Roman name for the Greek
divine


hero
Heracles
, who was the son of

Zeus
(Roman equivalent
Jupiter
) and the mortal
Alcmene
. In
classical mythology
, Hercules is famous for his 
strength and for his numerous far-ranging adventures.

The Romans adapted the Greek hero’s iconography and myths for their 
literature and art under the name Hercules. In later
Western art
and literature and in
popular culture
, Hercules is more 
commonly used than Heracles as the name of the hero. Hercules was a 
multifaceted figure with contradictory characteristics, which enabled later 
artists and writers to pick and choose how to represent him. This article 
provides an introduction to representations of Hercules in the
later tradition
.




Sardis 
or Sardes was an ancient city at the location of modern Sart (Sartmahmut 
before 19 October 2005) in
Turkey
‘s
Manisa Province
. Sardis was the capital of the 
ancient kingdom of Lydia
, one of the important cities of the
Persian Empire
, the seat of a
proconsul
under the
Roman Empire
, and the metropolis of the 
province Lydia in later Roman and
Byzantine
times. As one of the
Seven churches of Asia
, it was addressed by the 
author John of the
Book of Revelation
in the Holy Bible in terms 
which seem to imply that its population was notoriously soft and fainthearted. 
Its importance was due, first to its military strength, secondly to its 
situation on an important highway leading from the interior to the
Aegean
coast, and thirdly to its commanding the 
wide and fertile plain of the
Hermus
.

Geography

Sardis was situated in the middle of
Hermus
valley, at the foot of
Mount Tmolus
, a steep and lofty spur which 
formed the citadel. It was about 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) south of the Hermus. 
Today, the site is located by the present day village of Sart, near
Salihli
in the Manisa province of Turkey, close 
to the Ankara

Ä°zmir
highway (approximately 72 kilometres 
(45 mi) from Ä°zmir
). The part of remains including the 
bath-gymnasium complex, synagogue and Byzantine shops is open to visitors 
year-round.

History

The earliest reference to Sardis is in the
The Persians
of
Aeschylus
(472 BC); in the
Iliad
, the name Hyde seems to be given to 
the city of the
Maeonian
(i.e.
Lydian
) chiefs, and in later times Hyde was 
said to be the older name of Sardis, or the name of its
citadel
. It is, however, more probable that 
Sardis was not the original capital of the Maeonians, but that it became so amid 
the changes which produced the powerful
Lydian empire
of the 8th century BC.

The city was captured by the
Cimmerians
in the 7th century BC, by the
Persians
in the 6th, by the
Athenians
in the 5th, and by
Antiochus III the Great
at the end of the 3rd 
century BC. In the Persian era, Sardis was conquered by
Cyrus the Great
and formed the end station for 
the Persian Royal Road
which began in
Persepolis
, capital of
Persia
. During the
Ionian Revolt
, the
Athenians
burnt down the city. Sardis remained 
under Persian domination until it surrendered to
Alexander the Great
in 334 BC.

The early Lydian kingdom was very advanced in the industrial arts and Sardis 
was the chief seat of its manufactures. The most important of these trades was 
the manufacture and dyeing of delicate woolen stuffs and carpets. The stream
Pactolus
which flowed through the market-place 
“carried golden sands” in early antiquity, which was in reality gold dust out of
Mount Tmolus
. It was during the reign of King
Croesus
that the
metallurgists
of Sardis discovered the secret 
of separating gold
from
silver
, thereby producing both metals of a 
purity never known before. This was an economic revolution, for while gold 
nuggets panned or mined were used as currency, their purity was always suspect 
and a hindrance to trade. Such nuggets or coinage were naturally occurring 
alloys of gold and silver known as
electrum
and one could never know how much of 
it was gold and how much was silver. Sardis now could mint nearly pure silver 
and gold coins, the value of which could be—and was—trusted throughout the known 
world. This revolution made Sardis rich and
Croesus
‘ name synonymous with wealth itself. 
For this reason, Sardis is famed in history as the place where modern
currency
was invented.

Disaster came to the great city under the reign of the emperor
Tiberius
, when in
AD 17, Sardis was destroyed by an earthquake

but it was rebuilt. It was one of the great cities of western
Asia Minor
until the later
Byzantine
period.

Later, trade and the organization of commerce continued to be sources of 
great wealth. After
Constantinople
became the capital of the East, 
a new road system grew up connecting the provinces with the capital. Sardis then 
lay rather apart from the great lines of communication and lost some of its 
importance. It still, however, retained its titular supremacy and continued to 
be the seat of the
metropolitan bishop
of the province of Lydia, 
formed in AD 295. It was enumerated as third, after
Ephesus
and
Smyrna
, in the list of cities of the Thracesion
thema
given by
Constantine Porphyrogenitus
in the 10th 
century. However, over the next four centuries it was in the shadow of the 
provinces of Magnesia-upon-Sipylum and Philadelphia, which retained their 
importance in the region.

After 1071 the Hermus valley began to suffer from the inroads of the
Seljuk Turks
but the Byzantine general
John Doukas
reconquered the city in 1097, the 
successes of the general Philokales in 1118 relieved the district from later 
Turkish pressure and the ability of the
Comneni
dynasty together with the gradual decay 
of the
Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
meant that it remained 
under Byzantine dominion. When
Constantinople
was taken by the
Venetians
and
Franks
in 1204 Sardis came under the rule of 
the Byzantine
Empire of Nicea
. However once the Byzantines 
retook Constantinople in 1261, Sardis with the entire
Asia Minor
was neglected and the region 
eventually fell under the control of Ghazi (Ghazw
emirs, the
Cayster
valleys and a fort on the citadel of 
Sardis was handed over to them by treaty in 1306. The city continued its decline 
until its capture (and probable destruction) by the
Mongol
warlord
Timur
in 1402.


Nero (Latin:
Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus;15 December 37 – 9 June 68) was
Roman Emperor
from 54 to 68, and the last in 
the
Julio-Claudian dynasty
. Nero was
adopted by
his great uncle
Claudius
to become his heir and successor, and 
succeeded to the throne in 54 following Claudius’ death.

File:Nero 1.JPG

During his reign, Nero focused much of his attention on diplomacy, trade, and 
enhancing the cultural life of the Empire. He ordered theaters built and 
promoted athletic games. During his reign, the redoubtable general
Corbulo
conducted a
successful war
and negotiated peace with the
Parthian Empire
. His general
Suetonius Paulinus
crushed a
revolt in Britain
. Nero annexed the
Bosporan Kingdom
to the Empire and began the
First Roman–Jewish War
.

In 64, most of Rome was destroyed in the
Great Fire of Rome
, which many Romans believed 
Nero himself had started in order to clear land for his planned palatial 
complex, the
Domus Aurea
. In 68, the rebellion of
Vindex
in

Gaul
and later the acclamation of
Galba
in
Hispania
drove Nero from the throne. Facing 
assassination, he committed suicide on 9 June 68 (the first Roman emperor to do 
so) His death ended the
Julio-Claudian Dynasty
, sparking a brief period 
of civil wars known as the
Year of the Four Emperors
. Nero’s rule is often 
associated with tyranny and extravagance.  He is known for many executions, 
including that of his mother, and the probable murder by poison of his 
stepbrother
Britannicus
.

He is infamously known as the Emperor who “fiddled while Rome burned” and as 
an early persecutor of
Christians
. He was known for having captured 
Christians to burn them in his garden at night for a source of light. This view 
is based on the writings of
Tacitus
,
Suetonius
, and
Cassius Dio
, the main surviving sources for 
Nero’s reign. Few surviving sources paint Nero in a favorable light. Some 
sources, though, including some mentioned above, portray him as an emperor who 
was popular with the common Roman people, especially in the East. Some modern 
historians question the reliability of ancient sources when reporting on Nero’s 
tyrannical acts. 

Family

Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, the future Nero, was born on 15 December 
37 in
Antium
, near Rome. He was the only son of
Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus
and
Agrippina the Younger
, sister of Emperor
Caligula
.

Nero’s father Gnaeus was the son of
Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus
(consul 16 BC) and
Antonia Major
. Gnaeus was thus the grandson of 
Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 32 BC) and probably
Aemilia Lepida
on his father’s side, and the 
grandson of
Mark Antony
and
Octavia Minor
on his mother’s side. Thus, Nero 
had as his paternal grandmother Antonia Maior, and also claimed more remote 
descent from
Antonia Minor
as a great-grandson—later 
grandson after Claudius adopted him.

Through Octavia, Nero was the grandnephew of Caesar Augustus. Nero’s father 
had been employed as a
praetor
and was a member of Caligula’s staff 
when the latter traveled to the East (some apparently think Suetonius refers to 
Augustus’ adopted son Gaius Caesar here, but this is not likely).

Nero’s father was described by Suetonius as a murderer and a cheat who was 
charged by Emperor
Tiberius
with treason, adultery, and incest. 
Tiberius died, allowing him to escape these charges. Nero’s father died of
edema
(“dropsy”) in 39 when Nero was two.

Nero’s mother was Agrippina the Younger, a great-granddaughter of
Caesar Augustus
and his wife
Scribonia
through their daughter
Julia the Elder
and her husband
Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa
. Agrippina’s father,
Germanicus
, was a grandson of Augustus’s wife,
Livia
, on one side and to Mark Antony and 
Octavia on the other. Germanicus’ mother Antonia Minor, was a daughter of 
Octavia Minor and Mark Antony. Octavia was Augustus’ elder sister. Germanicus 
was also the adopted son of Tiberius. Agrippina poisoned her second husband 
Passienus Crispus, so many ancient historians also accuse her of murdering her 
third husband, the emperor Claudius.

Rise to power


Coin issued under
Claudius
celebrating young Nero as 
the future emperor, c. 50.

Nero was not expected to become Emperor because his maternal uncle,
Caligula
, had begun his reign at the age of 25 
with enough time to produce his own heir. Nero’s mother, Agrippina, lost favor 
with Caligula and was exiled in 39 after her husband’s death.[15] 
Caligula seized Nero’s inheritance and sent him to be raised by his less wealthy 
aunt,
Domitia Lepida
, who was the mother of
Valeria Messalina
, Claudius’s third wife.

Caligula, his wife
Caesonia
and their infant daughter
Julia Drusilla
were murdered on 24 January 41. 
These events led
Claudius
, Caligula’s uncle, to become emperor. 
Claudius allowed Agrippina to return from exile.

Claudius had married twice before marrying Valeria Messalina. His previous 
marriages produced three children including a son, Drusus, who died at a young 
age. He had two children with Messalina –
Claudia Octavia
(born 40) and Britannicus (born 
41). Messalina was executed by Claudius in the year 48.

In 49 AD, Claudius married a fourth time, to Nero’s mother Agrippina. To aid 
Claudius politically, young Nero was adopted in 50 and took the name Nero 
Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus
. Nero was older than his stepbrother 
Britannicus, and thus became heir to the throne.

Nero was proclaimed an adult in 51 at the age of 14. He was appointed
proconsul
, entered and first addressed the
Senate
, made joint public appearances with 
Claudius, and was featured in coinage. In 53, he married his stepsister Claudia 
Octavia.

Emperor (54 AD)

Early rule


Nero and
Agrippina
. Agrippina crowns her 
young son Nero with a laurel wreath. She carries a
cornucopia
, symbol of fortune and 
plenty, and he wears the armour and cloak of a Roman commander, with 
a helmet on the ground at his feet. The scene refers to Nero’s 
accession as emperor in 54 AD and is dated before 59 AD when Nero 
had Agrippina murdered.[24]


An Aureus
of Nero and his mother,
Agrippina
, c. 54.

Claudius
died in 54 and Nero, taking the name
Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, was established as Emperor. 
Though accounts vary, many ancient historians state
Agrippina
poisoned Claudius. According to
Pliny the Elder
, she used poison mushrooms. It 
is not known how much Nero knew or if he was even involved in the death of 
Claudius.

Suetonius wrote “…for even if he was not the instigator of the 
emperor’s death, he was at least privy to it, as he openly admitted; for he 
used afterwards to laud mushrooms, the vehicle in which the poison was 
administered to Claudius, as “the food of the gods,” as the Greek proverb 
has it. At any rate, after Claudius’ death he vented on him every kind of 
insult, in act and word, charging him now with folly and now with cruelty; 
for it was a favourite joke of his to say that Claudius had ceased “to play 
the fool among mortals, lengthening the first syllable of the word morari, 
and he disregarded many of his decrees and acts as the work of a madman and 
a dotard. Finally, he neglected to enclose the place where his body was 
burned except with a low and mean wall.”

Nero became Emperor at 17 when the news of Claudius’ death was made known,the 
youngest emperor until that time. Ancient historians describe Nero’s early reign 
as being strongly influenced by his mother, Agrippina, his tutor
Lucius Annaeus Seneca
, and the Praetorian 
Prefect
Sextus Afranius Burrus
, especially in the first 
year. Other tutors were less often mentioned, such as
Alexander of Aegae
.

Very early in Nero’s rule, problems arose from competition for influence 
between Agrippina and Nero’s two main advisers, Seneca and Burrus.

In 54, Agrippina tried to sit down next to Nero while he met with an Armenian 
envoy, but Seneca stopped her and prevented a scandalous scene (as it was 
unimaginable at that time for a woman to be in the same room as men doing 
official business). Nero’s friends also mistrusted Agrippina and told Nero to 
beware of his mother.

Nero was reportedly unsatisfied with his marriage to
Octavia
and entered into an affair with
Claudia Acte
, a former slave. In 55, Agrippina 
attempted to intervene in favor of Octavia and demanded that her son dismiss 
Acte. Nero, with the support of Seneca, resisted the intervention of his mother 
in his personal affairs.

With Agrippina’s influence over her son severed, she reportedly began pushing 
for Britannicus, Nero’s stepbrother, to become emperor. Nearly fifteen-year-old 
Britannicus, heir-designate prior to Nero’s adoption, was still legally a minor, 
but was approaching legal adulthood.[36] 
According to Tacitus, Agrippina hoped that with her support, Britannicus, being 
the blood son of Claudius, would be seen as the true heir to the throne by the 
state over Nero. However, the youth died suddenly and suspiciously on 12 
February 55, the very day before his proclamation as an adult had been set.

Nero claimed that Britannicus died from an epileptic seizure, but ancient 
historians all claim Britannicus’ death came from Nero’s poisoning him. 
Supposedly, he enlisted the services of Locusta, a woman who specialized in the 
manufacture of poisons. She devised a mixture to kill Britannicus, but after 
testing it unsuccessfully on a slave, Nero angrily threatened to have her put to 
death if she did not come up with something usable. Locusta then devised a new 
concoction that she promised would “kill swifter than a viper.”

Her promise was fulfilled after Britannicus consumed it at a dinner party 
from water used to cool his wine, which had already been tasted, and succumbed 
within minutes.[38] 
After the death of Britannicus, Agrippina was accused of slandering Octavia and 
Nero ordered her out of the imperial residence.


Matricide and consolidation of power


Coin of Nero and
Poppaea Sabina

Over time, Nero became progressively more powerful, freeing himself of his 
advisers and eliminating rivals to the throne. In 55, he removed
Marcus Antonius Pallas
, an ally of Agrippina, 
from his position in the treasury. Pallas, along with
Burrus
, was accused of conspiring against the 
Emperor to bring
Faustus Sulla
to the throne.
Seneca
was accused of having relations with 
Agrippina and embezzlement. Seneca succeeded in having himself, Pallas and 
Burrus acquitted. According to
Cassius Dio
, at this time, Seneca and Burrus 
reduced their role in governing from careful management to mere moderation of 
Nero.

In 58, Nero became romantically involved with
Poppaea Sabina
, the wife of his friend and 
future emperor Otho
. Reportedly because a marriage to Poppaea 
and a divorce from Octavia did not seem politically feasible with Agrippina 
alive, Nero ordered the murder of his mother in 59. A number of modern 
historians find this an unlikely motive as Nero did not marry Poppaea until 62 .

Additionally, according to
Suetonius
, Poppaea did not divorce her husband 
until after Agrippina’s death, making it unlikely that the already married 
Poppaea would be pressing Nero for marriage. Some modern historians theorize 
that Nero’s execution of Agrippina was prompted by her plotting to set
Rubellius Plautus
on the throne. According to
Suetonius
, Nero tried to kill his mother 
through a planned shipwreck, which took the life of her friend,
Acerronia Polla
, but when Agrippina survived, 
he had her executed and framed it as a suicide. The incident is also recorded by 
Tacitus.


 

The Remorse of the Emperor Nero after the Murder of his Mother
by
John William Waterhouse
, 1878.

In 62, Nero’s adviser,
Burrus
, died. Additionally, Seneca was again 
faced with embezzlement charges. Seneca asked Nero for permission to retire from 
public affairs. Nero divorced and banished
Octavia
on grounds of infertility, leaving him 
free to marry the pregnant Poppaea. After public protests, Nero was forced to 
allow Octavia to return from exile, but she was executed shortly after her 
return.

Nero also was reported to have kicked Poppaea to death in 65 before she could 
have his second child. However, modern historians, noting Suetonius, Tacitus and 
Cassius Dio’s possible bias against Nero and the likelihood that they did not 
have eyewitness accounts of private events, postulate that Poppaea may have died 
because of complications of miscarriage or childbirth.

Accusations of treason being plotted against Nero and the Senate first 
appeared in 62. The Senate ruled that Antistius, a praetor, should be put to 
death for speaking ill of Nero at a party. Later, Nero ordered the exile of 
Fabricius Veiento who slandered the Senate in a book. Tacitus writes that the 
roots of the conspiracy led by
Gaius Calpurnius Piso
began in this year. To 
consolidate power, Nero executed a number of people in 62 and 63 including his 
rivals
Pallas
, Rubellius Plautus and Faustus Sulla.[59] 
According to Suetonius, Nero “showed neither discrimination nor moderation in 
putting to death whomsoever he pleased” during this period.

Nero’s consolidation of power also included a slow usurping of authority from 
the Senate. In 54, Nero promised to give the Senate powers equivalent to those 
under Republican rule. By 65, senators complained that they had no power left 
and this led to the
Pisonian conspiracy
.

Other relationships

When Nero’s wife
Poppaea Sabina
died in 65, Nero went into deep 
mourning. Her body was not cremated, it was stuffed with spices, embalmed and 
put in the
Mausoleum of Augustus
. She was given a
state funeral
. Nero praised her during the 
funeral eulogy and gave her divine honors. It is said that Nero “burned ten 
years’ worth of Arabia’s incense production at her funeral.

In the beginning of 66, he married
Statilia Messalina
. She was already married 
when she became Nero’s mistress in 65 AD, with Statilia’s husband being driven 
to suicide in 66, so Nero could marry Statilia. She was one of the few of Nero’s 
courtiers who survived the fall of his reign.

In 67, Nero ordered a young
freedman
,
Sporus
, to be castrated and then married him. 
According to
Dion Cassius
, Sporus bore an uncanny 
resemblance to Sabina, and Nero even called him by his dead wife’s name.

Administrative 
policies

Over the course of his reign, Nero often made rulings that pleased the lower 
class. Nero was criticized as being obsessed with personal popularity.

Nero began his reign in 54 by promising the Senate more autonomy. In this 
first year, he forbade others to refer to him with regard to enactments, for 
which he was praised by the Senate. Nero was known for spending his time 
visiting brothels and taverns during this period.

In 55, Nero began taking on a more active role as an administrator. He was
consul
four times between 55 and 60. During 
this period, some ancient historians speak fairly well of Nero and contrast it 
with his later rule.

Under Nero, restrictions were put on the amount of bail and fines. Also, fees 
for lawyers were limited. There was a discussion in the Senate on the misconduct 
of the freedmen class, and a strong demand was made that patrons should have the 
right of revoking freedom. Nero supported the freedmen and ruled that patrons 
had no such right.

The Senate tried to pass a law in which the crimes of one slave applied to 
all slaves within a household. Despite riots from the people, Nero supported the 
Senate on their measure, and deployed troops to organise the execution of 400 
slaves affected by the law. However, he vetoed strong measures against the 
freedmen affected by the case.

After tax collectors were accused of being too harsh to the poor, Nero 
transferred collection authority to lower commissioners. Nero banned any 
magistrate or procurator from exhibiting public entertainment for fear that the 
venue was being used as a method to sway the populace. Additionally, there were 
many impeachments and removals of government officials along with arrests for 
extortion and corruption.

When further complaints arose that the poor were being overly taxed, Nero 
attempted to repeal all indirect taxes. The Senate convinced him this action 
would bankrupt the public treasury. As a compromise, taxes were cut from 4.5% to 
2.5%. Additionally, secret government tax records were ordered to become public. 
To lower the cost of food imports, merchant ships were declared tax-exempt.

In imitation of the Greeks, Nero built a number of gymnasiums and theatres. 
Enormous gladiatorial shows were also held. Nero also established the
quinquennial Neronia
. The festival included 
games, poetry, and theater. Historians indicate that there was a belief that 
theatre led to immorality. Others considered that to have performers dressed in 
Greek clothing was old fashioned. Some questioned the large public expenditure 
on entertainment.

In 64,
Rome burned
. Nero enacted a public relief 
effort as well as significant reconstruction. A number of other major 
construction projects occurred in Nero’s late reign. Nero had the marshes of 
Ostia filled with rubble from the fire. He erected the large
Domus Aurea
. In 67, Nero attempted to have a 
canal dug at the
Isthmus of Corinth
. Ancient historians state 
that these projects and others exacerbated the drain on the State’s budget.

The cost to rebuild Rome was immense, requiring funds the state treasury did 
not have. Nero devalued the
Roman currency
for the first time in the 
Empire’s history. He reduced the weight of the
denarius
from 84 per
Roman pound
to 96 (3.85 grams to 3.35 grams). 
He also reduced the silver purity from 99.5% to 93.5%—the silver weight dropping 
from 3.83 grams to 3.4 grams. Furthermore, Nero reduced the weight of the
aureus
from 40 per Roman pound to 45 (8 grams 
to 7.2 grams).

Between 62 and 67, according to
Plinius the Elder
and Seneca, Nero promoted an 
expedition to discover the sources of the
Nile River
. It was the first exploration of 
equatorial Africa
from Europe in history. However, Nero’s 
expedition up the Nile failed because water plants had clogged the river, 
denying Nero’s vessels access to the

Sudd
of Nubia
.

The economic policy of Nero is a point of debate among scholars. According to 
ancient historians, Nero’s construction projects were overly extravagant and the 
large number of expenditures under Nero left Italy “thoroughly exhausted by 
contributions of money” with “the provinces ruined.”[90][91] 
Modern historians, though, note that the period was riddled with deflation and 
that it is likely that Nero’s spending came in the form of public works projects 
and charity intended to ease economic troubles.

Great Fire of 
Rome (64 AD)

The Great Fire of Rome erupted on the night of 18 July to 19 July 64. The 
fire started at the southeastern end of the
Circus Maximus
in shops selling flammable 
goods.


Artwork depicting the
Great Fire of Rome
.

The extent of the fire is uncertain. According to
Tacitus
, who was nine at the time of the fire, 
it spread quickly and burned for over five days. It destroyed three of fourteen 
Roman districts and severely damaged seven. The only other historian who lived 
through the period and mentioned the fire is
Pliny the Elder
, who wrote about it in passing. 
Other historians who lived through the period (including
Josephus
,
Dio Chrysostom
,
Plutarch
, and
Epictetus
) make no mention of it in what 
remains of their work.

It is uncertain who or what actually caused the fire—whether accident or
arson
.
Suetonius
and
Cassius Dio
favor Nero as the
arsonist
, so he could build a palatial complex. 
Tacitus mentions that Christians confessed to the crime, but it is not known 
whether these confessions were induced by torture. However, accidental fires 
were common in ancient Rome. In fact, Rome suffered another large fire in 69 and 
in 80.

It was said by Suetonius and Cassius Dio that Nero sang the “Sack 
of Ilium
” in stage costume while the city burned. Popular legend 
claims that Nero played the
fiddle
at the time of the fire, an
anachronism
based merely on the concept of the

lyre
, a stringed instrument associated with Nero and his 
performances. (There were no fiddles in 1st-century Rome.) Tacitus’s account, 
however, has Nero in
Antium
at the time of the fire. Tacitus also 
said that Nero playing his lyre and singing while the city burned was only 
rumor.

According to Tacitus, upon hearing news of the fire, Nero returned to Rome to 
organize a relief effort, which he paid for from his own funds. Nero’s 
contributions to the relief extended to personally taking part in the search for 
and rescue of victims of the blaze, spending days searching the debris without 
even his bodyguards.[citation 
needed
]
After the fire, Nero opened his palaces to 
provide shelter for the homeless, and arranged for food supplies to be delivered 
in order to prevent starvation among the survivors.

In the wake of the fire, he made a new urban development plan. Houses after 
the fire were spaced out, built in brick, and faced by
porticos
on wide roads. Nero also built a new 
palace complex known as the
Domus Aurea
in an area cleared by the fire. 
This included lush artificial landscapes and a 30-meter-tall statue of himself, 
the
Colossus of Nero
. The size of this complex is 
debated (from 100 to 300 acres). To find the necessary funds for the 
reconstruction,
tributes
were imposed on the provinces of the 
empire.

Tacitus
notes
that the population searched for a 
scapegoat and rumors held Nero responsible. To deflect blame, Nero targeted 
Christians. He ordered Christians to be thrown to dogs, while others were 
crucified and burned.

Public performances

Nero enjoyed driving a one-horse chariot, singing to the lyre, and poetry. He 
even composed songs that were performed by other entertainers throughout the 
empire. At first, Nero only performed for a private audience.

In 64 AD., Nero began singing in public in
Neapolis
in order to improve his popularity. He 
also sang at the second
quinquennial Neronia
in 65. It was said that 
Nero craved the attention, but historians also write that Nero was encouraged to 
sing and perform in public by the Senate, his inner circle and the people. 
Ancient historians strongly criticize his choice to perform, calling it 
shameful.

Nero was convinced to participate in the
Olympic Games
of 67 in order to improve 
relations with Greece and display Roman dominance. As a competitor, Nero raced a 
ten-horse chariot and nearly died after being thrown from it. He also performed 
as an actor and a singer. Though Nero faltered in his racing (in one case, 
dropping out entirely before the end) and acting competitions, he won these 
crowns nevertheless and paraded them when he returned to Rome. The victories are 
attributed to Nero bribing the judges and his status as emperor.

War and peace with 
Parthia

Shortly after Nero’s accession to the throne in 54, the Roman
vassal

kingdom of Armenia
overthrew their
Iberian
prince
Rhadamistus
and he was replaced with the
Parthian
prince
Tiridates
. This was seen as a Parthian invasion 
of Roman territory. There was concern in Rome over how the young Emperor would 
handle the situation. Nero reacted by immediately sending the military to the 
region under the command of
Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo
. The Parthians 
temporarily relinquished control of Armenia to Rome.

The peace did not last and full-scale war broke out in 58. The Parthian king
Vologases I
refused to remove his brother 
Tiridates from Armenia. The Parthians began a full-scale invasion of the 
Armenian kingdom. Commander Corbulo responded and repelled most of the Parthian 
army that same year. Tiridates retreated and Rome again controlled most of 
Armenia.

Nero was acclaimed in public for this initial victory.
Tigranes
, a Cappadocian noble raised in Rome, 
was installed by Nero as the new ruler of Armenia. Corbulo was appointed 
governor of Syria as a reward.

In 62, Tigranes invaded the Parthian province of
Adiabene
. Again, Rome and Parthia were at war 
and this continued until 63. Parthia began building up for a strike against the 
Roman province of Syria. Corbulo tried to convince Nero to continue the war, but 
Nero opted for a peace deal instead. There was anxiety in Rome about eastern 
grain supplies and a budget deficit.

The result was a deal where Tiridates again became the Armenian king, but was 
crowned in Rome by Emperor Nero. In the future, the
king of Armenia
was to be a Parthian prince, 
but his appointment required approval from the Romans. Tiridates was forced to 
come to Rome and partake in ceremonies meant to display Roman dominance.

This peace deal of 63 was a considerable victory for Nero politically. Nero 
became very popular in the eastern provinces of Rome and with the Parthians as 
well. The peace between Parthia and Rome lasted 50 years until Emperor
Trajan
of Rome invaded Armenia in 114.


Other major power struggles and rebellions


A plaster bust of Nero,
Pushkin Museum
, Moscow.

The war with Parthia was not Nero’s only major war but he was both criticized 
and praised for an aversion to battle. Like many emperors, Nero faced a number 
of rebellions and power struggles within the empire.

British Revolt of 60–61 (Boudica’s Uprising)

In 60, a major rebellion broke out in the province of
Britannia
. While the governor
Gaius Suetonius Paullinus
and his troops were 
busy capturing the island of Mona (Anglesey
from the druids, the tribes of the southeast staged a revolt led by queen
Boudica
of the
Iceni
. Boudica and her troops destroyed three 
cities before the army of Paullinus could return, receive reinforcements, and 
quell the rebellion in 61. Fearing Paullinus himself would provoke further 
rebellion, Nero replaced him with the more passive
Publius Petronius Turpilianus
.

The Pisonian Conspiracy of 65

In 65,
Gaius Calpurnius Piso
, a Roman statesman, 
organized a conspiracy against Nero with the help of Subrius Flavus and 
Sulpicius Asper, a tribune and a centurion of the Praetorian Guard. According to 
Tacitus, many conspirators wished to “rescue the state” from the emperor and 
restore the
Republic
. The freedman Milichus discovered the 
conspiracy and reported it to Nero’s secretary,
Epaphroditos
. As a result, the conspiracy 
failed and its members were executed including
Lucan
, the poet. Nero’s previous advisor,
Seneca
was ordered to commit suicide after 
admitting he discussed the plot with the conspirators.

The First Jewish War of 66–70

In 66, there was a Jewish revolt in Judea stemming from Greek and Jewish 
religious tension. In 67, Nero dispatched
Vespasian
to restore order. This revolt was 
eventually put down in 70, after Nero’s death. This revolt is famous for Romans 
breaching the walls of Jerusalem and destroying the Second
Temple of Jerusalem
.


The revolt of Vindex and Galba and the death of Nero


 

A marble bust of Nero, Antiquarium of the
Palatine
.

In March 68, Gaius Julius Vindex
, the governor of
Gallia Lugdunensis
, rebelled against Nero’s tax 
policies.
Lucius Verginius Rufus
, the governor of
Germania Superior
, was ordered to put down 
Vindex’s rebellion. In an attempt to gain support from outside his own province, 
Vindex called upon Servius Sulpicius Galba
, the governor of
Hispania Tarraconensis
, to join the rebellion 
and further, to declare himself emperor in opposition to Nero.

At the
Battle of Vesontio
in May 68, Verginius’ forces 
easily defeated those of Vindex and the latter committed suicide. However, after 
putting down this one rebel, Verginius’ legions attempted to proclaim their own 
commander as Emperor. Verginius refused to act against Nero, but the discontent 
of the legions of Germany and the continued opposition of Galba in Spain did not 
bode well for Nero.

While Nero had retained some control of the situation, support for Galba 
increased despite his being officially declared a public enemy. The prefect of 
the
Praetorian Guard
,
Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus
, also abandoned his 
allegiance to the Emperor and came out in support for Galba.

In response, Nero fled Rome with the intention of going to the port of
Ostia
and, from there, to take a fleet to one 
of the still-loyal eastern provinces. However, he abandoned the idea when some 
army officers openly refused to obey his commands, responding with a line from
Vergil
‘s
Aeneid
: “Is it so dreadful a thing then to 
die?” Nero then toyed with the idea of fleeing to
Parthia
, throwing himself upon the mercy of 
Galba, or to appeal to the people and beg them to pardon him for his past 
offences “and if he could not soften their hearts, to entreat them at least to 
allow him the prefecture of Egypt”. Suetonius reports that the text of this 
speech was later found in Nero’s writing desk, but that he dared not give it 
from fear of being torn to pieces before he could reach the Forum.

Nero returned to Rome and spent the evening in the palace. After sleeping, he 
awoke at about midnight to find the palace guard had left. Dispatching messages 
to his friends’ palace chambers for them to come, he received no answers. Upon 
going to their chambers personally, he found them all abandoned. When he called 
for a gladiator or anyone else adept with a sword to kill him, no one appeared. 
He cried, “Have I neither friend nor foe?” and ran out as if to throw himself 
into the Tiber
.

Returning, Nero sought for some place where he could hide and collect his 
thoughts. An imperial freedman,
Phaon
, offered his villa, located 4 miles 
outside the city. Travelling in disguise, Nero and four loyal
freedman
,
Epaphroditos
,
Phaon
,
Neophytus
, and
Sporus
, reached the villa, where Nero ordered 
them to dig a grave for him. At this time, a courier arrived with a report that 
the Senate had declared Nero a public enemy and that it was their intention to 
execute him by beating him to death.

At this news, Nero prepared himself for
suicide
. Losing his nerve, he first begged for 
one of his companions to set an example by first killing himself. At last, the 
sound of approaching horsemen drove Nero to face the end. However, he still 
could not bring himself to take his own life but instead he forced his private 
secretary,
Epaphroditos
, to perform the task.[citation 
needed
]
Nero’s famous dying words were “Qualis 
artifex pereo,” which translates into English as “What an artist dies in me!”

Events and revolts leading up to Nero’s death are portrayed in the 1951 film,
Quo Vadis
, with Peter Ustinov playing Nero.

When one of the horsemen entered, upon his seeing Nero all but dead he 
attempted to stop the bleeding in vain. Nero died on 9 June 68, the anniversary 
of the death of Octavia, and was buried in the Mausoleum of the Domitii 
Ahenobarbi, in what is now the
Villa Borghese
(Pincian 
Hill
) area of Rome.

With his death, the
Julio-Claudian dynasty
ended. Chaos ensued in 
the
year of the Four Emperors
.

Post Mortem

According to Suetonius and Cassius Dio, the people of Rome celebrated the 
death of Nero.Tacitus, though, describes a more complicated political 
environment. Tacitus mentions that Nero’s death was welcomed by Senators, 
nobility and the upper class. The lower-class, slaves, frequenters of the arena 
and the theater, and “those who were supported by the famous excesses of Nero”, 
on the other hand, were upset with the news. Members of the military were said 
to have mixed feelings, as they had allegiance to Nero, but were bribed to 
overthrow him.

Eastern sources, namely Philostratus II and
Apollonius of Tyana
, mention that Nero’s death 
was mourned as he “restored the liberties of
Hellas
with a wisdom and moderation quite alien 
to his character” and that he “held our liberties in his hand and respected 
them.”

Modern scholarship generally holds that, while the Senate and more well-off 
individuals welcomed Nero’s death, the general populace was “loyal to the end 
and beyond, for Otho and Vitellius both thought it worthwhile to appeal to their 
nostalgia.”

Nero’s name was erased from some monuments, in what Edward Champlin regards 
as an “outburst of private zeal”. Many portraits of Nero were reworked to 
represent other figures; according to Eric R. Varner, over fifty such images 
survive. This reworking of images is often explained as part of the way in which 
the memory of disgraced emperors was condemned posthumously (see
damnatio memoriae
). Champlin, however, doubts 
that the practice is necessarily negative and notes that some continued to 
create images of Nero long after his death.

The civil war during the
year of the Four Emperors
was described by 
ancient historians as a troubling period. According to Tacitus, this instability 
was rooted in the fact that emperors could no longer rely on the perceived 
legitimacy of the imperial bloodline, as Nero and those before him could.
Galba
began his short reign with the execution 
of many allies of Nero and possible future enemies. One such notable enemy 
included
Nymphidius Sabinus
, who claimed to be the son 
of Emperor Caligula
.

Otho
overthrew Galba. Otho was said to be liked 
by many soldiers because he had been a friend of Nero’s and resembled him 
somewhat in temperament. It was said that the common Roman hailed Otho as Nero 
himself. Otho used “Nero” as a surname and reerected many statues to Nero.
Vitellius
overthrew Otho. Vitellius began his 
reign with a large funeral for Nero complete with songs written by Nero.

After Nero’s suicide in 68, there was a widespread belief, especially in the 
eastern provinces, that he was not dead and somehow would return. This belief 
came to be known as the
Nero Redivivus Legend
.

The legend of Nero’s return lasted for hundreds of years after Nero’s death.
Augustine of Hippo
wrote of the legend as a 
popular belief in 422.

At least
three Nero imposters
emerged leading 
rebellions. The first, who sang and played the cithara or lyre and whose face 
was similar to that of the dead emperor, appeared in 69 during the reign of 
Vitellius. After persuading some to recognize him, he was captured and executed. 
Sometime during the reign of
Titus
(79–81), another impostor appeared in 
Asia and sang to the accompaniment of the lyre and looked like Nero but he, too, 
was killed. Twenty years after Nero’s death, during the reign of
Domitian
, there was a third pretender. He was 
supported by the Parthians, who only reluctantly gave him up, and the matter 
almost came to war.

Physical appearance

In his book The Lives of the Twelve Caesars,
Suetonius
describes Nero as “about the average 
height, his body marked with spots and
malodorous
, his hair light blond, his features 
regular rather than attractive, his eyes blue and somewhat weak, his neck over 
thick, his belly prominent, and his legs very slender.”

Historiography

The history of Nero’s reign is problematic in that no historical sources 
survived that were contemporary with Nero. These first histories at one time did 
exist and were described as biased and fantastical, either overly critical or 
praising of Nero. The original sources were also said to contradict on a number 
of events. Nonetheless, these lost primary sources were the basis of surviving 
secondary and tertiary histories on Nero written by the next generations of 
historians.

 A few of the contemporary historians are known by name.
Fabius Rusticus
,
Cluvius Rufus
and
Pliny the Elder
all wrote condemning histories 
on Nero that are now lost. There were also pro-Nero histories, but it is unknown 
who wrote them or for what deeds Nero was praised.

The bulk of what is known of Nero comes from
Tacitus
,
Suetonius
and
Cassius Dio
, who were all of the senatorial 
class. Tacitus and Suetonius wrote their histories on Nero over fifty years 
after his death, while Cassius Dio wrote his history over 150 years after Nero’s 
death. These sources contradict on a number of events in Nero’s life including 
the death of Claudius
, the death of
Agrippina
, and the Roman fire of 64, but they 
are consistent in their condemnation of Nero.

Nero and religion

Jewish tradition

At the end of 66, conflict broke out between Greeks and Jews in Jerusalem and 
Caesarea. According to the
Talmud
, Nero went to Jerusalem and shot arrows 
in all four directions. All the arrows landed in the city. He then asked a 
passing child to repeat the verse he had learned that day. The child responded, 
“I will lay my vengeance upon Edom by the hand of my people Israel” (Ez.
25,14
). Nero became terrified, believing that 
God wanted the
Temple in Jerusalem
to be destroyed, but would 
punish the one to carry it out. Nero said, “He desires to lay waste His House 
and to lay the blame on me,” whereupon he fled and converted to Judaism to avoid 
such retribution.
Vespasian
was then dispatched to put down the 
rebellion.

The Talmud adds that the sage
Reb Meir Baal HaNess
, a prominent supporter of 
the
Bar Kokhba

rebellion
against Roman rule, was a descendant 
of Nero.

Roman and Greek sources nowhere report Nero’s alleged trip to Jerusalem or 
his alleged conversion to Judaism. There is also no record of Nero having any 
offspring who survived infancy: his only recorded child,
Claudia Augusta
, died aged 4 months.

Christian tradition

Christian
tradition and secular historical 
sources hold Nero as the first major state sponsor of
Christian persecution
, and sometimes as the 
killer of
Apostles

Peter
and
Paul
. Some 2nd- and 3rd-century theologians, 
among others, recorded their belief that Nero would return from death or exile, 
usually as “the
Anti-Christ
. He is also seen as one of the most 
savage persecutors of
Christians
.”

First persecutor

Non-Christian historian
Tacitus
describes Nero extensively torturing 
and executing Christians after the fire of 64.
Suetonius
also mentions Nero punishing 
Christians, though he does so as a praise and does not connect it with the fire.

Christian writer
Tertullian
(c. 155–230) was the first to call 
Nero the first persecutor of Christians. He wrote, “Examine your records. There 
you will find that Nero was the first that persecuted this doctrine”.
Lactantius
(c. 240–320) also said that Nero 
“first persecuted the servants of God”. as does
Sulpicius Severus
. However, Suetonius writes 
that, “since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of 
Chrestus, he [emperor
Claudius
] expelled them from Rome” (“Iudaeos 
impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantis Roma expulit
“). These expelled “Jews” 
may have been early Christians, although Suetonius is not explicit. Nor is the 
Bible explicit, calling Aquila of Pontus and his wife, Priscilla, both expelled 
from Italy at the time, “Jews.”

Killer of Peter and 
Paul

The first text to suggest that Nero killed an apostle is the apocryphal
Ascension of Isaiah
, a Christian writing 
from the 2nd century. It says, the slayer of his mother, who himself this 
king, will persecute the plant which the Twelve Apostles of the Beloved have 
planted. Of the Twelve one will be delivered into his hands.

Bishop

Eusebius
of
Caesarea
(c. 275–339) was the first to write 
that Paul was beheaded in Rome during the reign of Nero. He states that Nero’s 
persecution led to Peter and Paul’s deaths, but that Nero did not give any 
specific orders. Several other accounts have Paul surviving his two years in 
Rome and traveling to
Hispania
.

Peter is first said to have been
crucified upside-down
in Rome during Nero’s 
reign (but not by Nero) in the
apocryphal

Acts of Peter
(c. 200). The account ends with 
Paul still alive and Nero abiding by God’s command not to persecute any more 
Christians.

By the 4th century, a number of writers were stating that Nero killed Peter 
and Paul.

The Antichrist

The
Ascension of Isaiah
is the first text to 
suggest that Nero was the Antichrist. It claims that a “lawless king, the slayer 
of his mother…will come and there will come with him all the powers of this 
world, and they will hearken unto him in all that he desires.”

The
Sibylline Oracles
, Book 5 and 8, written in the 
2nd century, speak of Nero returning and bringing destruction. Within Christian 
communities, these writings, along with others, fueled the belief that Nero 
would return as the Antichrist. In 310,
Lactantius
wrote that Nero suddenly 
disappeared, and even the burial-place of that noxious wild beast was nowhere to 
be seen. This has led some persons of extravagant imagination to suppose that, 
having been conveyed to a distant region, he is still reserved alive; and to him 
they apply the Sibylline verses
.

In 422,
Augustine of Hippo
wrote about 2 Thessalonians 
2:1–11, where he believed Paul mentioned the coming of the Antichrist. Though he 
rejects the theory, Augustine mentions that many Christians believed that Nero 
was the Antichrist or would return as the Antichrist. He wrote, so that in 
saying, “For the mystery of iniquity doth already work,” he alluded to Nero, 
whose deeds already seemed to be as the deeds of Antichrist.

Some modern biblical scholars such as Delbert Hillers (Johns 
Hopkins University
) of the
American Schools of Oriental Research
and the 
editors of the Oxford & Harper Collins Study Bibles, contend that the number
666
in the
Book of Revelation
is a code for Nero, a view 
that is also supported in
Roman Catholic
Biblical commentaries.

The concept of Nero as the Antichrist is often a central belief of
Preterist

eschatology
.

 

 


   

    

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