Vespasian – Roman Emperor: 69-79 A.D. –
Bronze Sestertius 31mm (25.00 grams) Rome mint: 71 A.D.
Reference: RIC 437, BMC 555, BN 516, C 326 Sestertius Obv:
IMPCAESVESPASIANAVGPMTRPPPCOSIII – Laureate head right.
PAXAVGVSTI – Pax standing left, holding branch and cornucopia; S C across
fields.
You are bidding on the exact item pictured,
provided with a Certificate of Authenticity and Lifetime Guarantee of
Authenticity.
The sestertius, or sesterce, (pl. sestertii) was an
ancient Roman
coin. During the
Roman Republic
it was a small,
silver
coin issued only on rare occasions.
During the
Roman Empire
it was a large
brass
coin.
Helmed Roma head right, IIS behind
Dioscuri
riding right, ROMA in linear frame
below. RSC4, C44/7, BMC13.
The name sestertius (originally semis-tertius) means “2 ½”, the
coin’s original value in
asses
, and is a combination of semis
“half” and tertius “third”, that is, “the third half” (0 ½ being the
first half and 1 ½ the second half) or “half the third” (two units
plus half the third unit, or halfway between the second unit and
the third). Parallel constructions exist in
Danish
with halvanden (1 ½),
halvtredje (2 ½) and halvfjerde (3 ½). The form sesterce,
derived from
French
, was once used in preference to the
Latin form, but is now considered old-fashioned.
It is abbreviated as (originally IIS).
Example of a detailed portrait of
Hadrian
117 to 138
History
The sestertius was introduced c. 211 BC as a small
silver
coin valued at one-quarter of a
denarius
(and thus one hundredth of an
aureus
). A silver denarius was supposed to
weigh about 4.5 grams, valued at ten grams, with the silver sestertius valued at
two and one-half grams. In practice, the coins were usually underweight.
When the denarius was retariffed to sixteen asses (due to the gradual
reduction in the size of bronze denominations), the sestertius was accordingly
revalued to four asses, still equal to one quarter of a denarius. It was
produced sporadically, far less often than the denarius, through 44 BC.
Hostilian
under
Trajan Decius
250 AD
In or about 23 BC, with the coinage reform of
Augustus
, the denomination of sestertius was
introduced as the large brass denomination. Augustus tariffed the value of the
sestertius as 1/100 Aureus
. The sestertius was produced as the
largest brass
denomination until the late 3rd century
AD. Most were struck in the mint of
Rome but from AD 64 during the reign of
Nero (AD 54–68) and
Vespasian
(AD 69–79), the mint of
Lyon (Lugdunum), supplemented production. Lyon sestertii can
be recognised by a small globe, or legend stop), beneath the bust.[citation
needed]
The brass sestertius typically weighs in the region of 25 to 28 grammes, is
around 32–34 mm in diameter and about 4 mm thick. The distinction between
bronze
and brass was important to the Romans.
Their name for brass
was
orichalcum
, a word sometimes also spelled
aurichalcum (echoing the word for a gold coin, aureus), meaning
‘gold-copper’, because of its shiny, gold-like appearance when the coins were
newly struck (see, for example
Pliny the Elder
in his Natural History
Book 34.4).
Orichalcum
was considered, by weight, to be
worth about double that of bronze. This is why the half-sestertius, the
dupondius
, was around the same size and weight
as the bronze as, but was worth two asses.
Sestertii continued to be struck until the late 3rd century, although there
was a marked deterioration in the quality of the metal used and the striking
even though portraiture remained strong. Later emperors increasingly relied on
melting down older sestertii, a process which led to the zinc component being
gradually lost as it burned off in the high temperatures needed to melt copper (Zinc
melts at 419 °C, Copper
at 1085 °C). The shortfall was made up
with bronze and even lead. Later sestertii tend to be darker in appearance as a
result and are made from more crudely prepared blanks (see the
Hostilian
coin on this page).
The gradual impact of
inflation
caused by
debasement
of the silver currency meant that
the purchasing power of the sestertius and smaller denominations like the
dupondius and as was steadily reduced. In the 1st century AD, everyday small
change was dominated by the dupondius and as, but in the 2nd century, as
inflation bit, the sestertius became the dominant small change. In the 3rd
century silver coinage contained less and less silver, and more and more copper
or bronze. By the 260s and 270s the main unit was the double-denarius, the
antoninianus
, but by then these small coins
were almost all bronze. Although these coins were theoretically worth eight
sestertii, the average sestertius was worth far more in plain terms of the metal
they contained.
Some of the last sestertii were struck by
Aurelian
(270–275 AD). During the end of its
issue, when sestertii were reduced in size and quality, the
double sestertius
was issued first by
Trajan Decius
(249–251 AD) and later in large
quantity by the ruler of a breakaway regime in the West called
Postumus
(259–268 AD), who often used worn old
sestertii to
overstrike
his image and legends on. The double
sestertius was distinguished from the sestertius by the
radiate crown
worn by the emperor, a device
used to distinguish the dupondius from the as and the antoninianus from the
denarius.
Eventually, the inevitable happened. Many sestertii were withdrawn by the
state and by forgers, to melt down to make the debased antoninianus, which made
inflation worse. In the coinage reforms of the 4th century, the sestertius
played no part and passed into history.
Sestertius of
Hadrian
, dupondius of
Antoninus Pius
, and as of
Marcus Aurelius
As a unit of account
The sestertius was also used as a standard unit of account, represented on
inscriptions with the monogram HS. Large values were recorded in terms of
sestertium milia, thousands of sestertii, with the milia often
omitted and implied. The hyper-wealthy general and politician of the late Roman
Republic,
Crassus
(who fought in the war to defeat
Spartacus
), was said by Pliny the Elder to have
had ‘estates worth 200 million sesterces’.
A loaf of bread cost roughly half a sestertius, and a
sextarius
(~0.5 liter) of
wine anywhere from less than half to more than 1 sestertius. One
modius
(6.67 kg) of
wheat
in 79 AD
Pompeii
cost 7 sestertii, of
rye
3 sestertii, a bucket 2 sestertii, a tunic 15 sestertii, a donkey 500 sestertii.
Records from Pompeii
show a
slave
being sold at auction for 6,252 sestertii.
A writing tablet from
Londinium
(Roman
London
), dated to c. 75–125 AD, records the
sale of a Gallic
slave girl called Fortunata for 600
denarii, equal to 2,400 sestertii, to a man called Vegetus. It is difficult to
make any comparisons with modern coinage or prices, but for most of the 1st
century AD the ordinary
legionary
was paid 900 sestertii per annum,
rising to 1,200 under
Domitian
(81-96 AD), the equivalent of 3.3
sestertii per day. Half of this was deducted for living costs, leaving the
soldier (if he was lucky enough actually to get paid) with about 1.65 sestertii
per day.
Perhaps a more useful comparison is a modern salary: in 2010 a private
soldier in the US Army (grade E-2) earned about $20,000 a year.
Numismatic value
A sestertius of
Nero
, struck at
Rome
in 64 AD. The reverse depicts
the emperor on horseback with a companion. The legend reads DECVRSIO,
‘a military exercise’. Diameter 35mm
Sestertii are highly valued by
numismatists
, since their large size gave
caelatores (engravers) a large area in which to produce detailed portraits
and reverse types. The most celebrated are those produced for
Nero (54-68 AD) between the years 64 and 68 AD, created by some of
the most accomplished coin engravers in history. The brutally realistic
portraits of this emperor, and the elegant reverse designs, greatly impressed
and influenced the artists of the
Renaissance
. The series issued by
Hadrian
(117-138 AD), recording his travels
around the Roman Empire, brilliantly depicts the Empire at its height, and
included the first representation on a coin of the figure of
Britannia
; it was revived by
Charles II
, and was a feature of
United Kingdom
coinage until the
2008 redesign
.
Very high quality examples can sell for over a million
dollars
at auction as of 2008, but the coins
were produced in such colossal abundance that millions survive. Worn, but
recognisable, examples of common types can be found for as little as £10 or $20.
In
Roman mythology
, Pax (Latin
for peace
)
(her
Greek
equivalent was
Eirene
) was recognized as a
goddess
during the rule of
Augustus
.
On the
Campus Martius
, she had a temple called the
Ara Pacis
,
and another temple on the
Forum Pacis
. She was depicted in art with
olive
branches, a
cornucopia
and a scepter. There was a festival in her honor on January 3. Daughter of
Jupiter
and
Iustitia
. Pax was often associated with spring.
Titus Flavius Vespasianus, known in English as Vespasian (November
17 9
AD –
June 23
79AD), was a
Roman
Emperor
who reigned from 69 AD until his death in 79 AD. Vespasian was the
founder of the short-lived
Flavian dynasty
, which ruled the
Roman
Empire
between 69 AD and 96 AD He was succeeded by his sons
Titus
(79–81) and
Domitian
(81–96).
Vespasian descended from a family of
equestrians
which rose into the
senatorial
rank under the emperors of the
Julio-Claudian dynasty
. Although he attained the
standard succession
of public offices, holding the
consulship
in 51, Vespasian became more reputed as a successful military
commander, partaking in the
Roman invasion of Britain
in 43, and subjugating the
Judaea province
during the
Jewish rebellion
of 66. While Vespasian was preparing to besiege the city of
Jerusalem
during the latter campaign, emperor
Nero committed
suicide, plunging the Roman Empire into a year of
civil war
known as the
Year of the Four Emperors
. After
Galba
and
Otho perished in
quick succession,
Vitellius
became emperor in mid 69. In response, the armies in
Egypt
and Judaea themselves declared Vespasian emperor on
July 1
. In his
bid for imperial power, Vespasian joined forces with
Gaius Licinius Mucianus
, the governor of
Syria
, who led
the Flavian forces against Vitellius, while Vespasian himself gained control
over Egypt. On
December
20
, Vitellius was defeated, and the following day, Vespasian was
declared emperor by the
Roman
Senate
.
Little factual information survives about Vespasian’s government during the
ten years he was emperor. His reign is best known for financial reforms
following the demise of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, the successful campaign
against Judaea, and several ambitious construction projects such as the
Colosseum
.
Upon his death on
June 23
,
79, he was
succeeded by his eldest son Titus.
//
Family
and early career
Vespasian was born in
Falacrina
, in the
Sabine
country
near Reate. His father,
Titus Flavius Sabinus
, was an
equestrian
who worked as a
customs
official in the province of
Asia
and a money-lender on a small scale in
Aventicum
,
where Vespasian lived for some time. His mother,
Vespasia Polla
, was the sister of a
Senator
.
After prompting from his mother, Vespasian followed his older brother, also
called
Titus Flavius Sabinus
, into public life. He served in the army as a military
tribune
in
Thrace
in 36.
The following year he was elected
quaestor
and served in Crete
and Cyrene
. He rose through the ranks of Roman public office, being elected
aedile
on his
second attempt in 39 and
praetor
on
his first attempt in 40, taking the opportunity to ingratiate himself with the
Emperor Caligula
.
In the meantime, he married
Domitilla the Elder
, the daughter of an equestrian from Ferentium. They had
two sons, Titus
Flavius Vespasianus
(b. 41) and
Titus Flavius
Domitianus
(b. 51), and a daughter,
Domitilla
(b. 39). Domitilla died before Vespasian became emperor.
Thereafter his mistress,
Caenis
, was his
wife in all but name until she died in 74.
Upon the accession of
Claudius
as
emperor in 41, Vespasian was appointed
legate
of
Augusta Legio II
, stationed in
Germania
,
thanks to the influence of the Imperial
freedman
Narcissus
.
Invasion
of Britannia
In 43, Vespasian and the II Augusta participated in the
Roman invasion of Britain
, and he distinguished himself under the overall
command of
Aulus Plautius
. After participating in crucial early battles on the rivers
Medway
and Thames
, he was sent to reduce the south west, penetrating through the modern
counties of Hampshire
,
Wiltshire
,
Dorset
,
Somerset
,
Devon
and
Cornwall
with the probable objectives of securing the south coast ports and harbours
along with the tin mines of Cornwall and the silver and lead mines of Somerset.
Vespasian marched from
Noviomagus Reginorum
(Chichester)
to subdue the hostile
Durotriges
and Dumnonii
tribes
[1]
,
captured twenty oppida (towns, or more probably
hill forts
,
including Hod
Hill
and
Maiden Castle
in
Dorset
). He
also invaded Vectis
(the Isle of Wight
), finally setting up a fortress and legionary headquarters at
Isca Dumnoniorum
(Exeter).
These successes earned him triumphal regalia (ornamenta triumphalia) on
his return to Rome.
Continued
political career
Vespasian was elected
consul
for the
last two months of 51, after which he withdrew from public life. He came out of
retirement in 63 when he was sent as governor to
Africa Province
. According to
Tacitus
(ii.97), his rule was “infamous and odious” but according to
Suetonius
(Vesp. 4), he was “upright and, highly honourable”. On one
occasion he was pelted with
turnips
.
Vespasian used his time in North Africa wisely. Usually governorships were seen
by ex-consuls as opportunities to extort huge amounts of money to regain their
wealth that they had spent on their previous political campaigns. Corruption was
so rife, that it was almost expected that a governor would come back from these
appointments with his pockets full. However, Vespasian used his time in North
Africa making friends instead of money; something that would be far more
valuable in the years to come. During his time in North Africa, he found himself
in financial difficulties and was forced to mortgage his estates to his brother.
To revive his fortunes he turned to the
mule trade and
gained the nickname mulio (mule-driver).
Returning from Africa, Vespasian toured
Greece
in
Nero‘s retinue, but
lost Imperial favour after paying insufficient attention (some sources suggest
he fell asleep) during one of the Emperor’s recitals on the
lyre, and found
himself in the political wilderness.
Great
Jewish Revolt
However, in 66, Vespasian was appointed to conduct the
war
in Judea
.
A revolt there had killed the previous governor and routed
Licinius
Mucianus
, the governor of
Syria
, when he tried to restore order. Two legions, with eight cavalry
squadrons and 10 auxiliary cohorts, were therefore dispatched under the command
of Vespasian to add to the one already there. His elder son, Titus, served on
his staff. During this time he became the patron of
Flavius Josephus
, a Jewish
resistance leader turned Roman agent who would go on to write his
people’s history in
Greek
. In the end, thousands of Jews were killed and many towns destroyed by
the Romans, who successfully re-established control over Judea. They took
Jerusalem in 70
. He is
remembered by Jews as a fair and humane official, in contrast to the notorious
Herod the Great
.
Josephus
wrote that after the Roman
Legio X Fretensis
accompanied by Vespasian destroyed Jericho on
June 21
,
68, he took a
group of Jews who could not swim (possibly
Essenes
from
Qumran
),
fettered them, and threw them into the
Dead Sea
to
test its legendary
buoyancy
.
Sure enough, the Jews shot back up after being thrown in from boats and floated
calmly on top of the sea.
Year
of Four Emperors
Map of the Roman Empire during the
Year of the Four Emperors
(69 AD). Blue areas indicate provinces
loyal to Vespasian and
Gaius Licinius Mucianus
.
After the death of Nero in 68, Rome saw a succession of short-lived emperors
and a year of civil wars
. Galba
was murdered by Otho
,
who was defeated by
Vitellius
.
Otho’s supporters, looking for another candidate to support, settled on
Vespasian.
According to Suetonius, a prophecy ubiquitous in the Eastern provinces
claimed that from Judaea would come the future rulers of the world. Vespasian
eventually believed that this prophecy applied to him, and found a number of
omens,
oracles
, and
portents
that reinforced this belief .
He also found encouragement in Mucianus, the governor of Syria; and, although
Vespasian was a strict disciplinarian and reformer of abuses, Vespasian’s
soldiers were thoroughly devoted to him. All eyes in the East were now upon him.
Mucianus and the Syrian legions were eager to support him. While he was at
Caesarea
, he was proclaimed emperor (July
1, 69
),
first by the army in Egypt
under
Tiberius Julius Alexander
, and then by his troops in Judaea (July 11
according to Suetonius, July 3 according to Tacitus).
Nevertheless,
Vitellius
,
the occupant of the throne, had Rome’s best troops on his side — the veteran
legions of Gaul
and
the Rhineland
.
But the feeling in Vespasian’s favour quickly gathered strength, and the armies
of Moesia
,
Pannonia
,
and
Illyricum
soon declared for him, and made him the de facto master of
half of the Roman world.
While Vespasian himself was in Egypt securing its
grain supply
, his troops entered Italy from the northeast under the
leadership of
M. Antonius Primus
. They defeated Vitellius’s army (which had awaited him in
Mevania
) at
Bedriacum
(or Betriacum), sacked
Cremona
and
advanced on Rome. They entered Rome after furious fighting. In the resulting
confusion, the Capitol was destroyed by fire and Vespasian’s brother Sabinus was
killed by a mob.
On receiving the tidings of his rival’s defeat and death at
Alexandria
,
the new emperor at once forwarded supplies of urgently needed grain to Rome,
along with an edict or a declaration of policy, in which he gave assurance of an
entire reversal of the laws of Nero, especially those relating to
treason
.
While in Egypt he visited the Temple of
Serapis
,
where reportedly he experienced a
vision
. Later he was confronted by two labourers who were convinced that he
possessed a divine power that could work
miracles
.
Vespasian
as emperor
Aftermath
of the civil war
Bust of Vespasian,
Pushkin Museum
,
Moscow
.
Vespasian was declared emperor by the Senate while he was in Egypt in
December of 69 (the Egyptians had declared him emperor in June of 69). In the
short-term, administration of the empire was given to
Mucianus
who was aided by Vespasian’s son,
Domitian
.
Mucianus started off Vespasian’s rule with tax reform that was to restore the
empire’s finances. After Vespasian arrived in Rome in mid-70, Mucianus continued
to press Vespasian to collect as many taxes as possible.
Vespasian and Mucianus renewed old taxes and instituted new ones, increased
the tribute of the provinces, and kept a watchful eye upon the treasury
officials. The Latin
proverb
“Pecunia
non olet” (“Money does not smell”) may have been created when he had
introduced a
urine tax
on public toilets. By his own example of simplicity of life — he
caused something of a scandal when it was made known he took his own boots off —
he initiated a marked improvement in the general tone of society in many
respects.
In early 70, Vespasian was still in Egypt, the source of Rome’s grain supply,
and had not yet left for Rome. According to
Tacitus
, his
trip was delayed due to bad weather.
Modern historians theorize that Vespasian had been and was continuing to
consolidate support from the Egyptians before departing.
Stories of a divine Vespasian healing people circulated in Egypt.
During this period, protests erupted in Alexandria over his new tax policies and
grain shipments were held up. Vespasian eventually restored order and grain
shipments to Rome resumed.
In addition to the uprising in Egypt, unrest and civil war continued in the
rest of the empire in 70. In Judea, rebellion had continued from 66. Vespasian’s
son, Titus
,
finally subdued the rebellion with the capture of Jerusalem and destruction of
the
Jewish Temple
in 70. According to
Eusebius
, Vespasian then ordered all descendants of the royal line of
David
to be
hunted down, causing the Jews to be persecuted from province to province.
Several modern historians have suggested that Vespasian, already having been
told by Josephus that he was prophesied to become emperor whilst in Judaea, was
probably reacting to other widely-known Messianic prophecies circulating at the
time, to suppress any rival claimants arising from that dynasty.
In January of the same year, an uprising occurred in
Gaul and Germany,
known as the second
Batavian Rebellion
. This rebellion was headed by
Gaius Julius Civilis
and
Julius Sabinus
. Sabinus, claiming he was descended from
Julius Caesar
, declared himself emperor of Gaul. The rebellion defeated and
absorbed two Roman legions before it was suppressed by Vespasian’s
brother-in-law,
Quintus Petillius Cerialis
, by the end of 70.
Arrival
in Rome and gathering support
In mid-70, Vespasian first came to Rome. Vespasian immediately embarked on a
series of efforts to stay in power and prevent future revolts. He offered gifts
to many in the military and much of the public.
Soldiers loyal to Vitellius were dismissed or punished.
He also restructured the Senatorial and Equestrian orders, removing his enemies
and adding his allies.
Regional autonomy of Greek provinces was repealed.
Additionally, he made significant attempts to control public perception of his
rule.
Propaganda
campaign
Many modern historians note the increased amount of propaganda that appeared
during Vespasian’s reign.
Stories of a supernatural emperor who was destined to rule circulated in the
empire.
Nearly one-third of all coins minted in Rome under Vespasian celebrated military
victory or peace.
The word vindex was removed from coins so as not to remind the public of
rebellious Vindex
.
Construction projects bore inscriptions praising Vespasian and condemning
previous emperors.
A temple of peace was constructed in the forum as well.
Vespasian approved histories written under his reign, ensuring biases against
him were removed.
Vespasian also gave financial rewards to ancient writers.
The ancient historians who lived through the period such as
Tacitus
,
Suetonius
,
Josephus
and
Pliny the Elder
speak suspiciously well of Vespasian while condemning the
emperors who came before him.
Tacitus admits that his status was elevated by Vespasian, Josephus identifies
Vespasian as a patron and savior, and Pliny dedicated his Natural Histories
to Vespasian, Titus.
Those who spoke against Vespasian were punished. A number of stoic
philosophers were accused of corrupting students with inappropriate teachings
and were expelled from Rome.
Helvidius Priscus
, a pro-republic philosopher, was executed for his
teachings.
Construction
and conspiracies
Construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the
Colosseum
, was begun by Vespasian, and ultimately finished by
his son Titus.
Between 71 and 79, much of Vespasian’s reign is a mystery. Historians report
that Vespasian ordered the construction of several buildings in Rome.
Additionally, he survived several conspiracies against him.
Vespasian helped rebuild Rome after the civil war. He added the temple of
Peace and the temple to the Deified Claudius.
In 75, he erected a colossal statue of
Apollo
, begun
under Nero
, and he
dedicated a stage of the theater of Marcellus. He also began construction of the
Colosseum.
Suetonius claims that Vespasian was met with “constant conspiracies” against
him.
Only one conspiracy is known specifically, though. In 78 or 79, Eprius Marcellus
and
Aulus Caecina Alienus
attempted to kill Vespasian. Why these men turned
against Vespasian is not known.
Military
pursuits and death
In 78,
Agricola
was sent to
Britain
, and both extended and consolidated the Roman dominion in that
province, pushing his way into what is now
Scotland
.
On June 23 of the following year, Vespasian was on his deathbed and expiring
rapidly, he demanded that he be helped to stand as he believed “An emperor
should die on his feet”. He died of an intestinal inflammation which led to
excessive diarrhea
. His purported great wit can be glimpsed from his last words; Væ,
puto deus fio, “Damn. I am already
becoming a god
!”
Views
on Vespasian
Vespasian was known for his wit and his amiable manner alongside his
commanding persona and military prowess. He could be liberal to impoverished
Senators and equestrians and to cities and towns desolated by natural calamity.
He was especially generous to men of letters and
rhetors
, several of whom he pensioned with salaries of as much as 1,000 gold
pieces a year.
Quintilian
is said to have been the first public teacher who enjoyed this imperial favor.
Pliny the Elder
‘s work, the
Natural History
, was written during Vespasian’s reign, and dedicated to
Vespasian’s son Titus.
Vespasian distrusted philosophers in general, viewing them as unmanly
complainers who talked too much. It was the idle talk of philosophers, who liked
to glorify the good times of the
Republic
, that provoked Vespasian into reviving the obsolete penal laws
against this profession as a precautionary measure. Only one however,
Helvidius Priscus
, was put to death, and he had repeatedly affronted the
Emperor by studied insults which Vespasian had initially tried to ignore, “I
will not kill a dog that barks at me,” were his words on discovering Priscus’s
public slander.
Vespasian was indeed noted for mildness when dealing with political
opposition. According to Suetonius, he bore the frank language of his friends,
the quips of pleaders, and the impudence of the philosophers with the greatest
patience. Though Licinius Mucianus, a man of notorious unchastity, presumed upon
his services to treat Vespasian with scant respect, he never had the heart to
criticize him except privately and then only to the extent of adding to a
complaint made to a common friend, the significant words: “I at least, am a
man.”
He was also noted for his benefactions to the people, much money was spent on
public works and the restoration and beautification of Rome: a new forum, the
Temple of Peace, the public baths and the great show piece, the
Colosseum
.
In the modern
Italian language
, the urinals are called “vespasiano”, probably in reference
to a tax the emperor placed on urine collection (useful due to its ammoniac
content; see
Pay toilet
).
In
later literature
-
Marcus Didius Falco
novels
-
The Course of Honour, a novel by
Lindsey Davis
-
Edward Rutherfurd
‘s
historical fiction
novel
Sarum
contains an account of one the protagonists’ (a
Celtic
chief)
meeting Vespasian during his campaign through southern Britannia.
-
Vespasian, as legate under
Aulus Plautius
, is a regular secondary character in
Simon Scarrow
‘s
Eaglegle
series.
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