VESPASIAN 70AD Rare Ancient Silver Roman Coin PAX Peace Goddess Commerce i32062

Item: i32062

 Authentic Ancient

Coin of:

Vespasian – Roman Emperor: 69-79 A.D. –

Silver Denarius 17mm (1.94 grams) Rome mint: 70 A.D.
Reference: RIC 10, S 2285
 IMPCAESARVESPASIANVSAVG – Laureate head right.
COSITERTRPOT – Pax seated left, holding branch and caduceus.

You are bidding on the exact item pictured,

Authenticity.

The caduceus from
Greek
“herald’s staff” is the staff carried by
Hermes
in
Greek mythology
. The same staff was also borne
by heralds in general, for example by
Iris
, the messenger of

Hera. It is a short staff entwined by two
serpents
, sometimes surmounted by wings. In
Roman iconography it was often depicted being carried in the left hand of
Mercury
, the messenger of the gods, guide of
the dead and protector of merchants, shepherds, gamblers, liars, and thieves.

As a symbolic object it represents Hermes (or the Roman Mercury), and by
extension trades, occupations or undertakings associated with the god. In later
Antiquity
the caduceus provided the basis for
the
astrological symbol
representing the
planet Mercury
. Thus, through its use in
astrology
and
alchemy
, it has come to denote the
elemental metal
of the same name.

By extension of its association with Mercury/Hermes, the caduceus is also a
recognized symbol of commerce and negotiation, two realms in which balanced
exchange and reciprocity are recognized as ideals.^[4][5]
This association is ancient, and consistent from the Classical period to modern
times. The caduceus is also used as a symbol representing printing, again by
extension of the attributes of Mercury (in this case associated with writing and
eloquence).

The caduceus is sometimes mistakenly used
as a symbol of medicine and/or medical practice
,
especially in
North America
, because of widespread confusion
with the traditional medical symbol, the
rod of Asclepius
, which has only a single snake
and no wings.

The term kerukeion denoted any herald’s staff, not necessarily
associated with Hermes in particular.^[7]

Lewis Richard Farnell
(1909) in his study of
the cult of Hermes assumed that the two snakes had simply developed out of
ornaments of the shepherd’s crook used by heralds as their staff.^[8]
This view has been rejected by later authors pointing to parallel iconography in
the Ancient Near East. It has been argued that the staff or wand entwined by two
snakes was itself representing a god in the pre-anthropomorphic era. Like the
herm
or
priapus
, it would thus be a predecessor of the
anthropomorphic Hermes of the classical era.

Ancient Near East

William Hayes Ward
(1910) discovered that
symbols similar to the classical caduceus sometimes appeared on
Mesopotamian cylinder seals
. He suggested the
symbol originated some time between 3000 and 4000 BCE, and that it might have
been the source of the Greek caduceus.^[10]
A.L. Frothingham incorporated Dr. Ward’s research into his own work, published
in 1916, in which he suggested that the prototype of Hermes was an “Oriental
deity of Babylonian extraction” represented in his earliest form as a snake god.
From this perspective, the caduceus was originally representative of Hermes
himself, in his early form as the Underworld god
Ningishzida
, “messenger” of the “Earth Mother”.^[11]
The caduceus is mentioned in passing by
Walter Burkert
^[12]
as “really the image of copulating snakes taken over from Ancient Near Eastern
tradition”.

In Egyptian iconography, the

Djed pillar is depicted as containing a snake in a frieze of the
Dendera Temple complex
.

The rod of Moses
and the
brazen serpent
are frequently compared to the
caduceus, especially as Moses is acting as a messenger of God to the
Pharaoh
at the point in the narrative where he
changes his staff into a serpent.^[13]

Classical antiquity

Mythology

The
Homeric hymn
 to Hermes relates how Hermes
offered his lyre fashioned from a tortoise shell as compensation for the
cattle he stole
from his half brother
Apollo
. Apollo in return gave Hermes the
caduceus as a gesture of friendship.^[14]
The association with the serpent thus connects Hermes to
Apollo
, as later the serpent was associated
with Asclepius
, the “son of Apollo”.^[15]
The association of Apollo with the serpent is a continuation of the older
Indo-European

dragon
-slayer motif.
Wilhelm Heinrich Roscher
 (1913) pointed out
that the serpent as an attribute of both Hermes and Asclepius is a variant of
the “pre-historic semi-chthonic serpent hero known at Delphi as
Python
“, who in classical mythology is slain by
Apollo.^[16]

One Greek myth of origin
of the caduceus is part of the
story of Tiresias
,^[17]
who found two snakes copulating and killed the female with his staff. Tiresias
was immediately turned into a woman, and so remained until he was able to repeat
the act with the male snake seven years later. This staff later came into the
possession of the god Hermes, along with its transformative powers.

Another myth suggests that Hermes (or Mercury) saw two serpents entwined in
mortal combat. Separating them with his wand he brought about peace between
them, and as a result the wand with two serpents came to be seen as a sign of
peace.^[18]

In Rome, Livy
refers to the caduceator who
negotiated peace arrangements under the diplomatic protection of the caduceus he
carried.

Iconography

In some vase paintings ancient depictions of the Greek kerukeion are
somewhat different from the commonly seen modern representation. These
representations feature the two snakes atop the staff (or rod), crossed to
create a circle with the heads of the snakes resembling horns. This old graphic
form, with an additional crossbar to the staff, seems to have provided the basis
for the graphical
sign of Mercury
(☿) used in
Greek astrology
 from Late Antiquity.^[19]

Use in alchemy
and occultism

As the symbol of both the
planet
and the
metal
named for Mercury, the caduceus became an
important symbol in
alchemy
.

The
crucified serpent
was also revived as an
alchemical symbol for
fixatio
, and
John Donne
 (Sermons 10:190) uses
“crucified Serpent” as a title of
Jesus Christ
.

Symbol of commerce

A simplified variant of the caduceus is to be found in dictionaries,
indicating a “commercial term” entirely in keeping with the association of
Hermes with commerce. In this form the staff is often depicted with two winglets
attached and the snakes are omitted (or reduced to a small ring in the middle).^[20]
The Customs Service of the former
German Democratic Republic
employed the
caduceus, bringing its implied associations with thresholds, translators, and
commerce, in the service medals they issued their staff.

Misuse as symbol
of medicine

It is relatively common, especially in the United States, to find the
caduceus, with its two snakes and wings, used as a symbol of medicine instead of
the correct rod of Asclepius, with only a single snake. This usage is erroneous,
popularised largely as a result of the adoption of the caduceus as its insignia
by the
US Army medical corps
in 1902 at the insistence
of a single officer (though there are conflicting claims as to whether this was
Capt. Frederick P. Reynolds or Col. John R. van Hoff).

The rod of Asclepius is the dominant symbol for professional healthcare
associations in the United States. One survey found that 62% of professional
healthcare associations used the rod of Asclepius as their symbol.^[23]
The same survey found that 76% of commercial healthcare organizations used the
Caduceus symbol. The author of the study suggests the difference exists because
professional associations are more likely to have a real understanding of the
two symbols, whereas commercial organizations are more likely to be concerned
with the visual impact a symbol will have in selling their products.

The initial errors leading to its adoption and the continuing confusion it
generates are well known to medical historians. The long-standing and abundantly
attested historical associations of the caduceus with commerce, theft,
deception, and death are considered by many to be inappropriate in a symbol used
by those engaged in the healing arts.^[22]
This has occasioned significant criticism of the use of the caduceus in a
medical context.

In

Roman mythology

, Pax (Latin

for peace
)

(her

Greek

equivalent was

) was recognized as a

goddess

during the rule of

Augustus
.

On the

Campus Martius

, she had a temple called the

Ara Pacis
,

and another temple on the

Forum Pacis

. She was depicted in art with

olive
branches, a

cornucopia

and a scepter. There was a festival in her honor on January 3. Daughter of

Jupiter

and

Iustitia

. Pax was often associated with spring.

Titus Flavius Vespasianus, known in English as Vespasian (November

17 9
AD –

June 23

79AD), was a

Roman

Emperor
who reigned from 69 AD until his death in 79 AD. Vespasian was the

founder of the short-lived

Flavian dynasty

, which ruled the

Roman

Empire
between 69 AD and 96 AD He was succeeded by his sons

Titus
(79–81) and

Domitian

(81–96).

Vespasian descended from a family of

equestrians

which rose into the

senatorial

rank under the emperors of the

Julio-Claudian dynasty

. Although he attained the

standard succession

of public offices, holding the

consulship

in 51, Vespasian became more reputed as a successful military

commander, partaking in the

Roman invasion of Britain

in 43, and subjugating the

Judaea province

during the

Jewish rebellion

of 66. While Vespasian was preparing to besiege the city of

Jerusalem

during the latter campaign, emperor

Nero committed

suicide, plunging the Roman Empire into a year of

civil war

known as the

Year of the Four Emperors

. After

Galba
and

Otho perished in

quick succession,

Vitellius

became emperor in mid 69. In response, the armies in

Egypt

and Judaea themselves declared Vespasian emperor on

July 1
. In his

bid for imperial power, Vespasian joined forces with

Gaius Licinius Mucianus

, the governor of

Syria
, who led

the Flavian forces against Vitellius, while Vespasian himself gained control

over Egypt. On

December

20
, Vitellius was defeated, and the following day, Vespasian was

declared emperor by the

Roman

Senate
.

Little factual information survives about Vespasian’s government during the

ten years he was emperor. His reign is best known for financial reforms

following the demise of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, the successful campaign

against Judaea, and several ambitious construction projects such as the

Colosseum
.

Upon his death on

June 23
,

79, he was

succeeded by his eldest son Titus.

//

 Family

and early career

Vespasian was born in

Falacrina

, in the

Sabine
country

near Reate. His father,

Titus Flavius Sabinus

, was an

equestrian

who worked as a

customs

official in the province of

Asia

and a money-lender on a small scale in

Aventicum
,

where Vespasian lived for some time. His mother,

Vespasia Polla

, was the sister of a

Senator
.

After prompting from his mother, Vespasian followed his older brother, also

called

Titus Flavius Sabinus

, into public life. He served in the army as a military

tribune
in

Thrace
in 36.

The following year he was elected

quaestor

and served in Crete

and Cyrene

. He rose through the ranks of Roman public office, being elected

aedile
on his

second attempt in 39 and

praetor
on

his first attempt in 40, taking the opportunity to ingratiate himself with the

Emperor Caligula

.

In the meantime, he married

Domitilla the Elder

, the daughter of an equestrian from Ferentium. They had

two sons, Titus

Flavius Vespasianus
(b. 41) and

Titus Flavius

Domitianus
(b. 51), and a daughter,

Domitilla

(b. 39). Domitilla died before Vespasian became emperor.

Thereafter his mistress,

Caenis
, was his

wife in all but name until she died in 74.

Upon the accession of

Claudius
as

emperor in 41, Vespasian was appointed

legate
of

Augusta Legio II

, stationed in

Germania
,

thanks to the influence of the Imperial

freedman

Narcissus

.

 Invasion

of Britannia

In 43, Vespasian and the II Augusta participated in the

Roman invasion of Britain

, and he distinguished himself under the overall

command of

Aulus Plautius

. After participating in crucial early battles on the rivers

Medway

and Thames

, he was sent to reduce the south west, penetrating through the modern

counties of Hampshire

,

Wiltshire
,

Dorset
,

Somerset
,

Devon
and

Cornwall

with the probable objectives of securing the south coast ports and harbours

along with the tin mines of Cornwall and the silver and lead mines of Somerset.

Vespasian marched from

Noviomagus Reginorum

(Chichester)

to subdue the hostile

Durotriges

and Dumnonii

tribes

[1]
,

captured twenty oppida (towns, or more probably

hill forts
,

including Hod

Hill
and

Maiden Castle

in

Dorset
). He

also invaded Vectis

(the Isle of Wight

), finally setting up a fortress and legionary headquarters at

Isca Dumnoniorum

(Exeter).

These successes earned him triumphal regalia (ornamenta triumphalia) on

his return to Rome.

 Continued

political career

Vespasian was elected

consul
for the

last two months of 51, after which he withdrew from public life. He came out of

retirement in 63 when he was sent as governor to

Africa Province

. According to

Tacitus

(ii.97), his rule was “infamous and odious” but according to

Suetonius

(Vesp. 4), he was “upright and, highly honourable”. On one

occasion he was pelted with

turnips
.

Vespasian used his time in North Africa wisely. Usually governorships were seen

by ex-consuls as opportunities to extort huge amounts of money to regain their

wealth that they had spent on their previous political campaigns. Corruption was

so rife, that it was almost expected that a governor would come back from these

appointments with his pockets full. However, Vespasian used his time in North

Africa making friends instead of money; something that would be far more

valuable in the years to come. During his time in North Africa, he found himself

in financial difficulties and was forced to mortgage his estates to his brother.

To revive his fortunes he turned to the

mule trade and

gained the nickname mulio (mule-driver).

Returning from Africa, Vespasian toured

Greece
in

Nero‘s retinue, but

lost Imperial favour after paying insufficient attention (some sources suggest

he fell asleep) during one of the Emperor’s recitals on the

lyre, and found

himself in the political wilderness.

 Great

Jewish Revolt

However, in 66, Vespasian was appointed to conduct the

war

in Judea
.

A revolt there had killed the previous governor and routed

Licinius

Mucianus
, the governor of

Syria

, when he tried to restore order. Two legions, with eight cavalry

squadrons and 10 auxiliary cohorts, were therefore dispatched under the command

of Vespasian to add to the one already there. His elder son, Titus, served on

his staff. During this time he became the patron of

Flavius Josephus

, a Jewish

resistance leader turned Roman agent who would go on to write his

people’s history in

Greek

. In the end, thousands of Jews were killed and many towns destroyed by

the Romans, who successfully re-established control over Judea. They took

Jerusalem in 70
. He is

remembered by Jews as a fair and humane official, in contrast to the notorious

Herod the Great

.

Josephus

wrote that after the Roman

Legio X Fretensis

accompanied by Vespasian destroyed Jericho on

June 21
,

68, he took a

group of Jews who could not swim (possibly

Essenes
from

Qumran
),

fettered them, and threw them into the

Dead Sea
to

test its legendary

buoyancy
.

Sure enough, the Jews shot back up after being thrown in from boats and floated

calmly on top of the sea.

 Year

of Four Emperors

After the death of Nero in 68, Rome saw a succession of short-lived emperors

and a year of civil wars

. Galba

was murdered by Otho
,

who was defeated by

Vitellius
.

Otho’s supporters, looking for another candidate to support, settled on

Vespasian.

According to Suetonius, a prophecy ubiquitous in the Eastern provinces

claimed that from Judaea would come the future rulers of the world. Vespasian

eventually believed that this prophecy applied to him, and found a number of

omens,

oracles
, and

portents

that reinforced this belief .

He also found encouragement in Mucianus, the governor of Syria; and, although

Vespasian was a strict disciplinarian and reformer of abuses, Vespasian’s

soldiers were thoroughly devoted to him. All eyes in the East were now upon him.

Mucianus and the Syrian legions were eager to support him. While he was at

Caesarea

, he was proclaimed emperor (July

1, 69
),

first by the army in Egypt

under

Tiberius Julius Alexander

, and then by his troops in Judaea (July 11

according to Suetonius, July 3 according to Tacitus).

Nevertheless,

Vitellius
,

the occupant of the throne, had Rome’s best troops on his side — the veteran

legions of Gaul
and

the Rhineland
.

But the feeling in Vespasian’s favour quickly gathered strength, and the armies

of Moesia
,

Pannonia
,

and

Illyricum

soon declared for him, and made him the de facto master of

half of the Roman world.

While Vespasian himself was in Egypt securing its

grain supply

, his troops entered Italy from the northeast under the

leadership of

M. Antonius Primus

. They defeated Vitellius’s army (which had awaited him in

Mevania
) at

Bedriacum

(or Betriacum), sacked

Cremona
and

advanced on Rome. They entered Rome after furious fighting. In the resulting

confusion, the Capitol was destroyed by fire and Vespasian’s brother Sabinus was

killed by a mob.

On receiving the tidings of his rival’s defeat and death at

Alexandria
,

the new emperor at once forwarded supplies of urgently needed grain to Rome,

along with an edict or a declaration of policy, in which he gave assurance of an

entire reversal of the laws of Nero, especially those relating to

treason
.

While in Egypt he visited the Temple of

Serapis
,

where reportedly he experienced a

vision

. Later he was confronted by two labourers who were convinced that he

possessed a divine power that could work

miracles
.

 Vespasian

as emperor

 Aftermath

of the civil war

Vespasian was declared emperor by the Senate while he was in Egypt in

December of 69 (the Egyptians had declared him emperor in June of 69). In the

short-term, administration of the empire was given to

Mucianus

who was aided by Vespasian’s son,

Domitian
.

Mucianus started off Vespasian’s rule with tax reform that was to restore the

empire’s finances. After Vespasian arrived in Rome in mid-70, Mucianus continued

to press Vespasian to collect as many taxes as possible.

Vespasian and Mucianus renewed old taxes and instituted new ones, increased

the tribute of the provinces, and kept a watchful eye upon the treasury

officials. The Latin

proverb
“Pecunia

non olet” (“Money does not smell”) may have been created when he had

introduced a

urine tax

on public toilets. By his own example of simplicity of life — he

caused something of a scandal when it was made known he took his own boots off —

he initiated a marked improvement in the general tone of society in many

respects.

In early 70, Vespasian was still in Egypt, the source of Rome’s grain supply,

and had not yet left for Rome. According to

Tacitus
, his

trip was delayed due to bad weather.

Modern historians theorize that Vespasian had been and was continuing to

consolidate support from the Egyptians before departing.

Stories of a divine Vespasian healing people circulated in Egypt.

During this period, protests erupted in Alexandria over his new tax policies and

grain shipments were held up. Vespasian eventually restored order and grain

shipments to Rome resumed.

In addition to the uprising in Egypt, unrest and civil war continued in the

rest of the empire in 70. In Judea, rebellion had continued from 66. Vespasian’s

son, Titus
,

finally subdued the rebellion with the capture of Jerusalem and destruction of

the

Jewish Temple

in 70. According to

Eusebius

, Vespasian then ordered all descendants of the royal line of

David
to be

hunted down, causing the Jews to be persecuted from province to province.

Several modern historians have suggested that Vespasian, already having been

told by Josephus that he was prophesied to become emperor whilst in Judaea, was

probably reacting to other widely-known Messianic prophecies circulating at the

time, to suppress any rival claimants arising from that dynasty.

In January of the same year, an uprising occurred in

Gaul and Germany,

known as the second

Batavian Rebellion

. This rebellion was headed by

Gaius Julius Civilis

and

Julius Sabinus

. Sabinus, claiming he was descended from

Julius Caesar

, declared himself emperor of Gaul. The rebellion defeated and

absorbed two Roman legions before it was suppressed by Vespasian’s

brother-in-law,

Quintus Petillius Cerialis

, by the end of 70.

 Arrival

in Rome and gathering support

In mid-70, Vespasian first came to Rome. Vespasian immediately embarked on a

series of efforts to stay in power and prevent future revolts. He offered gifts

to many in the military and much of the public.

Soldiers loyal to Vitellius were dismissed or punished.

He also restructured the Senatorial and Equestrian orders, removing his enemies

and adding his allies.

Regional autonomy of Greek provinces was repealed.

Additionally, he made significant attempts to control public perception of his

rule.

 Propaganda

campaign

Many modern historians note the increased amount of propaganda that appeared

during Vespasian’s reign.

Stories of a supernatural emperor who was destined to rule circulated in the

empire.

Nearly one-third of all coins minted in Rome under Vespasian celebrated military

victory or peace.

The word vindex was removed from coins so as not to remind the public of

rebellious Vindex
.

Construction projects bore inscriptions praising Vespasian and condemning

previous emperors.

A temple of peace was constructed in the forum as well.

Vespasian approved histories written under his reign, ensuring biases against

him were removed.

Vespasian also gave financial rewards to ancient writers.

The ancient historians who lived through the period such as

Tacitus
,

Suetonius
,

Josephus

and

Pliny the Elder

speak suspiciously well of Vespasian while condemning the

emperors who came before him.

Tacitus admits that his status was elevated by Vespasian, Josephus identifies

Vespasian as a patron and savior, and Pliny dedicated his Natural Histories

to Vespasian, Titus.

Those who spoke against Vespasian were punished. A number of stoic

philosophers were accused of corrupting students with inappropriate teachings

and were expelled from Rome.

Helvidius Priscus

, a pro-republic philosopher, was executed for his

teachings.

 Construction

and conspiracies

Between 71 and 79, much of Vespasian’s reign is a mystery. Historians report

that Vespasian ordered the construction of several buildings in Rome.

Additionally, he survived several conspiracies against him.

Vespasian helped rebuild Rome after the civil war. He added the temple of

Peace and the temple to the Deified Claudius.

In 75, he erected a colossal statue of

Apollo
, begun

under Nero
, and he

dedicated a stage of the theater of Marcellus. He also began construction of the

Colosseum.

Suetonius claims that Vespasian was met with “constant conspiracies” against

him.

Only one conspiracy is known specifically, though. In 78 or 79, Eprius Marcellus

and

Aulus Caecina Alienus

attempted to kill Vespasian. Why these men turned

against Vespasian is not known.

 Military

pursuits and death

In 78,

Agricola

was sent to

Britain

, and both extended and consolidated the Roman dominion in that

province, pushing his way into what is now

Scotland
.

On June 23 of the following year, Vespasian was on his deathbed and expiring

rapidly, he demanded that he be helped to stand as he believed “An emperor

should die on his feet”. He died of an intestinal inflammation which led to

excessive diarrhea

. His purported great wit can be glimpsed from his last words; Væ,

puto deus fio, “Damn. I am already

becoming a god

!”

 Views

on Vespasian

Vespasian was known for his wit and his amiable manner alongside his

commanding persona and military prowess. He could be liberal to impoverished

Senators and equestrians and to cities and towns desolated by natural calamity.

He was especially generous to men of letters and

rhetors

, several of whom he pensioned with salaries of as much as 1,000 gold

pieces a year.

Quintilian

is said to have been the first public teacher who enjoyed this imperial favor.

Pliny the Elder

‘s work, the

, was written during Vespasian’s reign, and dedicated to

Vespasian’s son Titus.

Vespasian distrusted philosophers in general, viewing them as unmanly

complainers who talked too much. It was the idle talk of philosophers, who liked

to glorify the good times of the

Republic

, that provoked Vespasian into reviving the obsolete penal laws

against this profession as a precautionary measure. Only one however,

Helvidius Priscus

, was put to death, and he had repeatedly affronted the

Emperor by studied insults which Vespasian had initially tried to ignore, “I

will not kill a dog that barks at me,” were his words on discovering Priscus’s

public slander.

Vespasian was indeed noted for mildness when dealing with political

opposition. According to Suetonius, he bore the frank language of his friends,

the quips of pleaders, and the impudence of the philosophers with the greatest

patience. Though Licinius Mucianus, a man of notorious unchastity, presumed upon

his services to treat Vespasian with scant respect, he never had the heart to

criticize him except privately and then only to the extent of adding to a

complaint made to a common friend, the significant words: “I at least, am a

man.”

He was also noted for his benefactions to the people, much money was spent on

public works and the restoration and beautification of Rome: a new forum, the

Temple of Peace, the public baths and the great show piece, the

Colosseum
.

In the modern

Italian language

, the urinals are called “vespasiano”, probably in reference

to a tax the emperor placed on urine collection (useful due to its ammoniac

content; see

Pay toilet
).

 In

later literature

• Marcus Didius Falco

  novels

• The Course of Honour, a novel by

  Lindsey Davis

• Edward Rutherfurd

  ‘s

  historical fiction

  novel

  Sarum

  contains an account of one the protagonists’ (a

  Celtic
  chief)

  meeting Vespasian during his campaign through southern Britannia.

• Vespasian, as legate under

  Aulus Plautius

  , is a regular secondary character in

  Simon Scarrow

  ‘s

  Eaglegle

  series.