Theodosius
I –
Roman Emperor
: 379-395 A.D. –
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Flavius Theodosius ( 11 January 347 – 17 January 395),
also called Theodosius I and Theodosius the Great (Greek:
Θεοδόσιος Α΄ and Θεοδόσιος ο Μέγας), was
Roman
Emperor
from 379 to 395. Reuniting the eastern and western portions of the
empire, Theodosius was the last emperor of both the
Eastern
and
Western Roman Empire
. After his death, the two parts split permanently. He
is also known for making
Nicene
Christianity the official
state religion
of the Roman Empire.
//
Career
Theodosius was born in
Cauca
, in
Hispania
(modern day
Coca
,
Spain
) or, more
probably, in or near
Italica
(Seville)[2],
to a senior military officer,
Theodosius the Elder
.
He accompanied his father to
Britannia
to help quell the
Great Conspiracy
in 368. He was military commander (dux)
of Moesia
, a
Roman province on the lower
Danube
, in 374.
However, shortly thereafter, and at about the same time as the sudden disgrace
and execution of his father, Theodosius retired to Spain. The reason for his
retirement, and the relationship (if any) between it and his father’s death is
unclear. It is possible that he was dismissed from his command by the emperor
Valentinian I
after the loss of two of Theodosius’ legions to the
Sarmatians
in late 374.
The death of Valentinian I in 375 created political
pandemonium. Fearing further persecution on account of his family ties,
Theodosius abruptly retired to his family estates where he adapted to the life
of a provincial aristocrat.
From 364 to 375, the Roman Empire was governed by two
co-emperors, the brothers
Valentinian I
and
Valens
; when
Valentinian died in 375, his sons,
Valentinian II
and
Gratian
,
succeeded him as rulers of the Western Roman Empire. In 378, after
Valens
was
killed in the
Battle of Adrianople
, Gratian appointed Theodosius to replace the fallen
emperor as co-augustus for the East. Gratian was killed in a rebellion in
383, then Theodosius appointed his elder son,
Arcadius
,
his co-ruler for the East. After the death in 392 of Valentinian II, whom
Theodosius had supported against a variety of usurpations, Theodosius ruled as
sole emperor, appointing his younger son
Honorius
Augustus as his co-ruler for the West (Milan,
on 23 January 393) and defeating the usurper
Eugenius
on
6 September 394, at the
Battle of the Frigidus
(Vipava
river, modern Slovenia
) he restored peace.
Family
By his first wife, the probably Spanish
Aelia Flaccilla
Augusta, he had two sons,
Arcadius
and
Honorius
and a daughter, Aelia
Pulcheria
; Arcadius was his heir in the East and Honorius in the West. Both
Aelia Flaccilla and Pulcheria died in 385.
His second wife (but never declared Augusta) was
Galla
, daughter of the emperor
Valentinian I
and his second wife
Justina
. Theodosius and Galla had a son Gratian, born in 388 who died young
and a daughter Aelia
Galla Placidia
(392–450). Placidia was the only child who survived to
adulthood and later became an Empress; a third child, John, died with his mother
in childbirth in 394.
Diplomatic
policy with the Goths
The
Goths
and their
allies (Vandali,
Taifalae
,
Bastarnae
and the native
Carpi
) entrenched in the
provinces
of Dacia
and
eastern Pannonia Inferior
consumed Theodosious’ attention. The Gothic crisis was so
dire that his co-Emperor Gratian relinquished control of the
Illyrian
provinces and retired to
Trier
in
Gaul to let
Theodosius operate without hindrance. A major weakness in the Roman position
after the defeat at
Adrianople
was the recruiting of
barbarians
to fight against other barbarians. In order to reconstruct the Roman Army of the
West, Theodosius needed to find able bodied soldiers and so he turned to the
most capable men readily to hand: the barbarians recently settled in the Empire.
This caused many difficulties in the battle against barbarians since the newly
recruited fighters had little or no loyalty to Theodosius.
Theodosius was reduced to the costly expedient of shipping
his recruits to Egypt
and replacing them with more seasoned Romans, but there were still switches of
allegiance that resulted in military setbacks. Gratian sent generals to clear
the dioceses
of Illyria (Pannonia
and
Dalmatia
) of Goths, and Theodosius was able finally to enter
Constantinople
on 24 November 380, after two seasons in the field. The final
treaties with the remaining Gothic forces, signed 3 October 382, permitted large
contingents of primarily
Thervingian
Goths to settle along the southern
Danube
frontier
in the province
of Thrace
and
largely govern themselves.
The Goths now settled within the Empire had, as a result of
the treaties, military obligations to fight for the Romans as a national
contingent, as opposed to being fully integrated into the Roman forces.
However, many Goths would serve in Roman legions and others, as
foederati
,
for a single campaign, while bands of Goths switching loyalties became a
destabilizing factor in the internal struggles for control of the Empire.
In 390 the population of Thessalonica rioted in complaint
against the presence of the local Gothic garrison. The
garrison commander
was killed in the violence, so
Theodosius ordered the Goths to kill all the spectators in the circus as
retaliation
;
Theodoret
,
a contemporary witness to these events, reports:
the anger of the Emperor rose to the highest pitch, and
he gratified his vindictive desire for vengeance by unsheathing the sword
most unjustly and tyrannically against all, slaying the innocent and guilty
alike. It is said seven thousand perished without any forms of law, and
without even having judicial sentence passed upon them; but that, like ears
of wheat in the time of harvest, they were alike cut down.
In the last years of Theodosius’ reign, one of the emerging
leaders of the Goths, named
Alaric
,
participated in Theodosius’ campaign against
Eugenius
in
394, only to resume his rebellious behavior against Theodosius’ son and eastern
successor, Arcadius
, shortly after Theodosius’ death.
Civil
wars in the Empire
The administrative divisions of the
Roman Empire
in 395, under Theodosius I.
After the death of
Gratian
in
383, Theodosius’ interests turned to the
Western Roman Empire
, for the usurper
Magnus Maximus
had taken all the provinces of the West except for Italy.
This self-proclaimed threat was hostile to Theodosius’ interests, since the
reigning emperor
Valentinian II
, Maximus’ enemy, was his ally. Theodosius, however, was
unable to do much about Maximus due to his still inadequate military capability
and he was forced to keep his attention on local matters. However when Maximus
began an invasion of Italy in 387, Theodosius was forced to take action. The
armies of Theodosius and Maximus met in 388 at Poetovio and Maximus was
defeated. On 28 August 388 Maximus was executed.
Trouble arose again, after Valentinian was found hanging in
his room. It was claimed to be a suicide by the
magister militum
,
Arbogast
. Arbogast, unable to assume the role of emperor, elected
Eugenius
, a
former teacher of rhetoric. Eugenius started a program of restoration of the
Pagan
faith, and sought, in vain, Theodosius’ recognition. In January 393, Theodosius
gave his son
Honorius
the full rank of Augustus in the West, citing Eugenius’
illegitimacy.
Theodosius campaigned against Eugenius. The two armies faced
at the
Battle of Frigidus
in September 394.
The battle began on 5 September 394 with Theodosius’ full frontal assault on
Eugenius’ forces. Theodosius was repulsed and Eugenius thought the battle to be
all but over. In Theodosius’ camp the loss of the day decreased morale. It is
said that Theodosius was visited by two “heavenly riders all in white”
who gave him courage. The next day, the battle began again and Theodosius’
forces were aided by a natural phenomenon known as the
Bora
,
which produces cyclonic winds. The Bora blew directly against the forces of
Eugenius and disrupted the line.
Eugenius’ camp was stormed and Eugenius was captured and soon
after executed. Thus Theodosius became the only emperor.
Art
patronage
Theodosius offers a
laurel wreath
to the victor, on the marble base of the Obelisk of
Thutmosis III
at the
Hippodrome of Constantinople
.
Theodosius oversaw the removal in 390 of an Egyptian
obelisk
from
Alexandria to Constantinople. It is now known as the
obelisk of Theodosius
and still stands in the
Hippodrome
, the long
racetrack
that was the center of Constantinople’s public life and scene of
political turmoil. Re-erecting the monolith was a challenge for the technology
that had been honed in the construction of
siege
engines
. The obelisk, still recognizably a
solar symbol
,
had been moved from Karnak
to
Alexandria
with what is now the
Lateran obelisk
by
Constantius II
). The Lateran obelisk was shipped to Rome soon afterwards,
but the other one then spent a generation lying at the docks due to the
difficulty involved in attempting to ship it to Constantinople. Eventually, the
obelisk was cracked in transit. The white
marble
base is
entirely covered with
bas-reliefs
documenting the Imperial household and the engineering feat of
removing it to Constantinople. Theodosius and the imperial family are separated
from the nobles among the spectators in the
Imperial box
with a cover over them as a mark of their status. The
naturalism of traditional Roman art in such scenes gave way in these reliefs to
conceptual art
: the idea of order, decorum and respective ranking,
expressed in serried ranks of faces. This is seen as evidence of formal themes
beginning to oust the transitory details of mundane life, celebrated in Pagan
portraiture
.
Christianity had only just been adopted as the new state religion.
The Forum Tauri in Constantinople was renamed and redecorated
as the
Forum of Theodosius
, including a
column
and a
triumphal arch
in his honour.
Nicene
Christianity becomes the state religion
Theodosius promoted Nicene Trinitarianism within Christianity
and Christianity within the Empire. On 27 February 380, he declared “Catholic
Christianity” the only legitimate imperial religion, ending state support for
the traditional Roman religion.
Nicene
Creed
In the 4th century, the
Christian Church
was wracked with controversy over the divinity of
Jesus
Christ
, his
relationship to God
the Father, and the nature of the
Trinity
. In
325, Constantine I
convened the
Council of Nicea
, which asserted that Jesus, the Son, was equal to the
Father, one with the Father, and of the same substance (homoousios in
Greek). The council condemned the teachings of the theologian
Arius
: that the
Son was a created being and inferior to God the Father, and that the Father and
Son were of a similar substance (homoiousios in Greek) but not identical
(see
Nontrinitarian
). Despite the council’s ruling, controversy continued. By the
time of Theodosius’ accession, there were still several different church
factions that promoted alternative
Christology
.
Arians
While no mainstream churchmen within the Empire explicitly
adhered to Arius
(a presbyter from Alexandria, Egypt) or his teachings, there were those who
still used the homoiousios formula, as well as those who attempted to
bypass the debate by merely saying that Jesus was like (homoios in Greek)
God the Father, without speaking of substance (ousia). All these non-Nicenes
were frequently labeled as
Arians
(i.e., followers of Arius) by their opponents, though they would not
have identified themselves as such.
The Emperor Valens had favored the group who used the
homoios formula; this
theology
was prominent in much of the East and had under the sons of Constantine the
Great gained a foothold in the West. Theodosius, on the other hand, cleaved
closely to the
Nicene
Creed
which was the interpretation that predominated in the West and was
held by the important
Alexandrian church
.
Establishment
of Nicene Orthodoxy
On 26 November 380, two days after he had arrived in
Constantinople, Theodosius expelled the non-Nicene bishop,
Demophilus of Constantinople
, and appointed
Meletius
patriarch of Antioch, and
Gregory of Nazianzus
, one of the
Cappadocian Fathers
from
Antioch
(today in Turkey), patriarch of Constantinople. Theodosius had just been
baptized, by bishop
Acholius of Thessalonica
, during a severe illness, as was common in the
early Christian world.
On 27 February 380 he,
Gratian
and
Valentinian II
published an edict in order that all their subjects should
profess the faith of the bishops of Rome and Alexandria (i.e., the Nicene
faith). The move was mainly a thrust at the various beliefs that had arisen out
of Arianism, but smaller dissident sects, such as the
Macedonians
, were also prohibited. The exact text of this decree, gathered
in the Codex Theodosianus XVI.1.2, was:
It is our desire that all the various nations which
are subject to our Clemency and Moderation, should continue to profess that
religion which was delivered to the Romans by the divine Apostle Peter, as
it has been preserved by faithful tradition, and which is now professed by
the Pontiff Damasus and by Peter, Bishop of Alexandria, a man of apostolic
holiness. According to the apostolic teaching and the doctrine of the
Gospel, let us believe in the one deity of the Father, the Son and the Holy
Spirit, in equal majesty and in a holy Trinity. We authorize the
followers of this law to assume the title of Catholic Christians; but as
for the others, since, in our judgment they are foolish madmen, we decree
that they shall be branded with the ignominious name of heretics, and shall
not presume to give to their conventicles the name of churches. They will
suffer in the first place the chastisement of the divine condemnation and in
the second the punishment of our authority which in accordance with the will
of Heaven we shall decide to inflict.
(Henry
Bettenson, Documents of the Christian Church, Oxford University
Press, 1967, 2nd. (1st. 1943), p. 22).
In May 381, Theodosius summoned a new ecumenical council at
Constantinople (see
First Council of Constantinople
) to repair the schism between East and West
on the basis of Nicean orthodoxy.
“The council went on to define orthodoxy, including the mysterious Third Person
of the Trinity, the Holy Ghost who, though equal to the Father, ‘proceeded’ from
Him, whereas the Son was ‘begotten’ of Him.”
The council also “condemned the Apollonian and Macedonian heresies, clarified
church jurisdictions according to the civil boundaries of dioceses and ruled
that Constantinople was second in precedence to Rome.”
With the
death of Valens
, the Arians’ protector, his defeat probably damaged the
standing of the Homoian faction.
Conflicts
with Pagans during the reign of Theodosius I
Death
of Western Roman Emperor Valentinian II
On 15 May 392,
Valentinian II
was found hanged in his residence in the town of
Vienne
in
Gaul. The Frankish
soldier and Pagan
Arbogast
, Valentinian’s protector and
magister militum
, maintained that it was suicide. Arbogast and Valentinian
had frequently disputed rulership over the Western Roman Empire, and Valentinian
was also noted to have complained of Arbogast’s control over him to Theodosius.
Thus when word of his death reached Constantinople Theodosius believed, or at
least suspected, that Arbogast was lying and that he had engineered
Valentinian’s demise. These suspicions were further fueled by Arbogast’s
elevation of a Eugenius
, pagan official to the position of Western Emperor, and the veiled
accusations which Ambrose
, the Bishop of Milan, spoke during his funeral oration for
Valentinian.
Valentinian II’s death sparked a civil war between Eugenius
and Theodosius over the rulership of the west in the
Battle of the Frigidus
. The resultant eastern victory there led to the final
brief unification of the Roman Empire under Theodosius, and the ultimate
irreparable division of the empire after his death.
Proscription
of Paganism
For the first part of his rule, Theodosius seems to have
ignored the semi-official standing of the Christian bishops; in fact he had
voiced his support for the preservation of temples or pagan statues as useful
public buildings. In his early reign, Theodosius was fairly tolerant of the
pagans, for he needed the support of the influential pagan ruling class. However
he would in time stamp out the last vestiges of paganism with great severity.
His first attempt to inhibit paganism was in 381 when he reiterated
Constantine’s ban on sacrifice. In 384 he prohibited
haruspicy
on pain of death
, and unlike earlier anti-pagan prohibitions, he made
non-enforcement of the law, by Magistrates, into a crime itself.
In 388 he sent a prefect to Syria, Egypt, and Asia Minor with
the aim of breaking up pagan associations and the destruction of their temples.
The
Serapeum
at Alexandria was destroyed during this campaign.
In a series of decrees called the “Theodosian decrees” he progressively declared
that those Pagan feasts that had not yet been rendered Christian ones were now
to be workdays (in 389). In 391, he reiterated the ban of
blood sacrifice
and decreed “no one is to go to the sanctuaries, walk
through the temples, or raise his eyes to statues created by the labor of man”.
The temples that were thus closed could be declared “abandoned”, as Bishop
Theophilus of Alexandria
immediately noted in applying for permission to
demolish a site and cover it with a Christian church, an act that must have
received general sanction, for
mithraea
forming crypts of churches, and temples forming the foundations
of 5th century churches appear throughout the former Roman Empire. Theodosius
participated in actions by Christians against major Pagan sites: the destruction
of the gigantic Serapeum
of Alexandria by soldiers and local Christian citizens in 392,
according to the Christian sources authorized by Theodosius (extirpium malum),
needs to be seen against a complicated background of less spectacular violence
in the city:
Eusebius
mentions street-fighting in Alexandria between Christians and
non-Christians as early as 249, and non-Christians had participated in the
struggles for and against
Athanasius
in 341 and 356. “In 363 they killed
Bishop George for repeated acts of pointed outrage, insult, and pillage of the
most sacred treasures of the city.”
Saint Ambrose and Emperor Theodosius,
Anthony van Dyck
.
By decree in 391, Theodosius ended the subsidies that had
still trickled to some remnants of Greco-Roman civic Paganism too. The
eternal fire
in the Temple of
Vesta
in the
Roman
Forum
was extinguished, and the
Vestal Virgins
were disbanded. Taking the
auspices
and practicing
witchcraft
were to be punished. Pagan members of the
Senate
in Rome appealed to him to restore the
Altar of Victory
in the Senate House; he refused. After the last
Olympic Games
in 393, it is believed that Theodosius cancelled the games
although there is no proof of that in the official records of the Roman Empire,
and the reckoning of dates by
Olympiads
soon came to an end. Now Theodosius portrayed himself on his coins holding the
labarum
.
The apparent change of policy that resulted in the “Theodosian
decrees” has often been credited to the increased influence of
Ambrose
,
bishop of Milan
. It is worth noting that in 390 Ambrose had excommunicated
Theodosius, who had recently given orders which resulted in the
massacre
of 7,000 inhabitants of
Thessalonica
,
in response to the assassination of his military governor stationed in the city,
and that Theodosius performed several months of public penance. The specifics of
the decrees were superficially limited in scope, specific measures in response
to various petitions from Christians throughout his administration.
Some modern historians question the consequences of the laws
against pagans.
Death
Theodosius died, after battling the vascular disease
oedema
, in Milan
on 17 January 395. Ambrose organized and managed Theodosius’s lying in state in
Milan. Ambrose delivered a
panegyric
titled De Obitu Theodosii
before Stilicho
and Honorius
in which Ambrose detailed the suppression of heresy and paganism by Theodosius.
Theodosius was finally laid to rest in Constantinople on 8 November 395.
The Principate
Julio-Claudian
dynasty
Reign
|
Incumbent
|
Notes
|
16 January 27 BC to 19 August AD 14
|
Augustus
|
|
19 August 14 to 16 March 37
|
Tiberius
|
|
18 March 37 to 24 January 41
|
Caligula
|
Murdered by Praetorian Guard
|
24 January 41 to 13 October 54
|
Claudius
|
Poisoned by his wife Agrippina, mother of Nero
|
13 October 54 to 11 June 68
|
Nero
|
Made a slave kill him
|
Year
of the Four Emperors (Civil War)
Reign
|
Incumbent
|
Notes
|
8 June 68 to 15 January 69
|
Galba
|
Murdered in favour of
Otho
|
15 January 69 to 16 April 69
|
Otho
|
Committed suicide
|
2 January 69 to 20 December 69
|
Vitellius
|
Murdered in favour of
Vespasian
|
Flavian
dynasty
Reign
|
Incumbent
|
Notes
|
1 July 69 to 24 June 79
|
Vespasian
|
|
24 June 79 to 13 September 81
|
Titus
|
Possibly assassinated by Domitian
|
14 September 81 to 18 September 96
|
Domitian
|
Assassinated
|
Nervan-Antonian
dynasty
Main article:
Five Good Emperors
Reign
|
Incumbent
|
Notes
|
18 September 96 to 27 January 98
|
Nerva
|
Proclaimed emperor by senate
|
28 January 98 to 7 August 117
|
Trajan
|
|
11 August 117 to 10 July 138
|
Hadrian
|
|
10 July 138 to 7 March 161
|
Antoninus Pius
|
|
7 March 161 to 17 March 180
|
Marcus Aurelius
|
|
7 March 161 to March 169
|
Lucius Verus
|
Co-emperor with
Marcus Aurelius
|
175
|
Avidius Cassius
|
Usurper; ruled in Egypt and Syria; murdered by his own army
|
177 to 31 December 192
|
Commodus
|
Assassinated
|
Year
of the Five Emperors &
Severan dynasty
Reign
|
Incumbent
|
Notes
|
1 January 193 to 28 March 193
|
Pertinax
|
Proclaimed emperor by senate; murdered by Praetorian Guard
|
28 March 193 to 1 June 193
|
Didius Julianus
|
Proclaimed emperor by Praetorian Guard; executed on orders of the Senate
|
9 April 193 to 4 February 211
|
Septimius Severus
|
Proclaimed emperor by
Pannonian
troops; accepted by
senate
|
193 to 194/195
|
Pescennius Niger
|
Proclaimed emperor by Syrian troops, defeated in battle by
Septimius Severus
|
193/195 to 197
|
Clodius Albinus
|
Proclaimed emperor by British troops, defeated in battle by
Septimius Severus
|
198 to 8 April 217
|
Caracalla
|
Assassinated at the behest of
Macrinus
|
209 to 4 February 211
|
Geta
|
Co-emperor with
Caracalla
; assassinated on orders
of
Caracalla
|
11 April 217 to June 218
|
Macrinus
|
Proclaimed himself emperor; executed on orders of
Elagabalus
|
May 217 to June 218
|
Diadumenian
|
Junior co-emperor under
Macrinus
; executed
|
June 218 to 222
|
Elagabalus
|
Proclaimed emperor by army; murdered by his own troops
|
13 March 222 to ?March 235
|
Alexander Severus
|
Murdered by his own troops
|
Rulers during the
Crisis of the Third Century
Reign
|
Incumbent
|
Notes
|
February/March 235 to March/April 238
|
Maximinus Thrax
|
Proclaimed emperor by the army; murdered by
Praetorian Guard
|
earlyJanuary/March
238 to lateJanuary/April 238
|
Gordian I
|
Proclaimed emperor in Africa; committed suicide after
Gordian II
‘s death
|
earlyJanuary
March 238 to lateJanuary/April 238
|
Gordian II
|
Proclaimed emperor with
Gordian I
, killed in battle
|
earlyFebruary
238 to earlyMay 238
|
Pupienus
|
Proclaimed joint emperor by senate; murdered by
Praetorian Guard
|
earlyFebruary
238 to earlyMay 238
|
Balbinus
|
Proclaimed joint emperor by senate; murdered by
Praetorian Guard
|
May 238 to February 244
|
Gordian III
|
Nephew of
Gordian II
; death unclear,
probably murdered
|
240
|
Sabinianus
|
Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor; defeated in battle
|
February 244 to September/October 249
|
Philip the Arab
|
Proclaimed emperor after death of
Gordian III
; killed in battle by
Decius
|
248
|
Pacatianus
|
Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor; murdered by his own soldiers
|
248 to 249
|
Iotapianus
|
Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor in the east; murdered by his own
soldiers
|
248? or 253?
|
Silbannacus
|
Usurper; details essentially unknown
|
249 to June 251
|
Decius
|
Killed in battle
|
249 to 252
|
Priscus
|
Proclaimed himself emperor in the east in opposition to
Decius
|
250 to 250
|
Licinianus
|
Usurper; proclaimed emperor in Rome; rebellion suppressed
|
early251
to June 251
|
Herennius Etruscus
|
Junior co-emperor under
Decius
; killed in battle
|
251
|
Hostilian
|
Son of
Decius
; died of plague
|
June 251 to August 253
|
Gallus
|
Proclaimed emperor by his troops after Decius’s death; murdered by them
in favour of Aemilianus
|
July 251 to August 253
|
Volusianus
|
Junior co-emperor under
Gallus
; murdered by army
|
August 253 to October 253
|
Aemilian
|
Proclaimed emperor by his troops; murdered by them in favour of
Valerian
|
253 to June 260
|
Valerian
|
Proclaimed emperor by his troops; captured in battle by the
Persians
; died in captivity
|
253 to September 268
|
Gallienus
|
Junior co-emperor under
Valerian
to 260; probably murdered
by his generals
|
260
|
Saloninus
|
Son of
Gallienus
; proclaimed emperor by
army; murdered shortly after by troops of
Postumus
|
June 260 (or 258)
|
Ingenuus
|
Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor after
Valerian
‘s capture; defeated in
battle
|
260
|
Regalianus
|
Usurper; proclaimed emperor after
Ingenuus
‘s defeat; fate unclear
|
260 to 261
|
Macrianus Major
|
Usurper; proclaimed emperor by eastern army; defeated and killed in
battle
|
260 to 261
|
Macrianus Minor
|
Usurper; son of
Macrianus Major
; defeated and
killed in battle
|
260 to 261
|
Quietus
|
Usurper; son of
Macrianus Major
; defeated and
killed in battle
|
261 to 261 or 262
|
Mussius Aemilianus
|
Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor after the defeat of the Macriani;
defeated and executed
|
268 to 268
|
Aureolus
|
Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor after
Gallienus
‘s death; surrendered to
Claudius II Gothicus
; murdered by
Praetorian Guard
|
268 to August 270
|
Claudius II Gothicus
|
Proclaimed emperor by the army
|
August 270 to September 270
|
Quintillus
|
Proclaimed himself emperor; cause of death unclear
|
August 270 to 275
|
Aurelian
|
Proclaimed emperor by army; murdered by the
Praetorian Guard
|
271 to 271
|
Septimius
|
Usurper; proclaimed emperor in
Dalmatia
; killed by his own
soldiers
|
November/December 275 to July 276
|
Tacitus
|
Appointed emperor by the Senate; possibly assassinated
|
July 276 to September 276
|
Florianus
|
Brother of
Tacitus
, proclaimed emperor by the
western army; murdered by his troops
|
July 276 to lateSeptember 282
|
Probus
|
Proclaimed emperor by the eastern army; murdered by his own soldiers in
favour of
Carus
|
280
|
Julius Saturninus
|
Usurper; proclaimed emperor by his troops; then killed by them
|
280
|
Proculus
|
Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor at the request of the people of
Lugdunum
; executed by
Probus
|
280
|
Bonosus
|
Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor; defeated by
Probus
and committed suicide
|
September 282 to July/August 283
|
Carus
|
Proclaimed emperor by Praetorian guard
|
spring 283 to summer 285
|
Carinus
|
Son of Carus; co-emperor with
Numerian
; fate unclear
|
July/August 283 to November 284
|
Numerian
|
Son of Carus; co-emperor with
Carinus
; probably murdered
|
Gallic
Empire
260
to 274
Reign
|
Incumbent
|
Notes
|
260 to 268
|
Postumus
|
Declared himself emperor after
Valerian
‘s death; killed by his
own troops
|
268 to 268
|
Laelianus
|
Proclaimed himself emperor in opposition to Postumus; defeated and
killed by Postumus
|
269 to 269
|
Marius
|
Proclaimed himself emperor after Postumus’s death
|
269 to 271
|
Victorinus
|
Proclaimed emperor after Marius’s death
|
270 to 271
|
Domitianus
|
Proclaimed himself emperor of the
Gallic Empire
|
271 to 274
|
Tetricus I
|
Nominated heir to Victorinus
|
Britannic
Empire
286
to 297
Reign
|
Incumbent
|
Notes
|
286 to 293
|
Carausius
|
Declared himself emperor; assassinated by
Allectus
|
293 to 297
|
Allectus
|
Declared himself emperor after
Carausius
‘s death; defeated by
Constantius Chlorus
|
Dominate
Tetrarchy
and
Constantinian dynasty
Reign
|
Incumbent
|
Notes
|
20 November 284 to 1 May 305
|
Diocletian
|
Declared emperor by the army after Numerian’s death; Abdicated
|
1 April 286 to 1 May 305
|
Maximian
|
Made co-emperor (‘Augustus’) with
Diocletian
; abdicated
|
1 May 305 to 25 July 306
|
Constantius I Chlorus
|
Made junior co-emperor (‘Caesar’) under
Maximian
; became Augustus after
his abdication
|
1 May 305 to May 311
|
Galerius
|
Made junior co-emperor (‘Caesar’) under
Diocletian
; became Augustus after
his abdication
|
August 306 to 16 September 307
|
Severus II
|
Made junior co-emperor (‘Caesar’) under
Constantius Chlorus
; became
Augustus after his death; executed by
Maxentius
|
28 October 306 to 28 October 312
|
Maxentius
|
Son of
Maximian
; proclaimed Augustus by
Praetorian Guard
; defeated in
battle by
Constantine I
|
de jure:
307, de facto 312 to 22 May 337
|
Constantine I
|
Son of
Constantius Chlorus
; proclaimed
Augustus by army
|
308
–309?/311?
|
Domitius Alexander
|
Proclaimed emperor in Africa; defeated in battle by
Maxentius
|
11 November 308 to 18 September 324
|
Licinius
|
Appointed Augustus by
Galerius
; deposed by
Constantine I
and executed
|
1 May 311 to July/August 313
|
Maximinus Daia
|
Made junior co-emperor (‘Caesar’) under
Galerius
; became Augustus after
his death; defeated in battle by Licinius and committed suicide
|
December 316 to 1 March 317
|
Valerius Valens
|
Appointed co-Augustus by
Licinius
; executed by
Licinius
|
July to 18 September 324
|
Martinianus
|
Appointed co-Augustus by
Licinius
; deposed by
Constantine I
and executed
|
337 to 340
|
Constantine II
|
Son of
Constantine I
; co-emperor with his
brothers; killed in battle
|
337 to 361
|
Constantius II
|
Son of
Constantine I
; co-emperor with his
brothers
|
337 to 350
|
Constans I
|
Son of
Constantine I
; co-emperor with his
brothers, killed by
Magnentius
|
January 350 to 11 August 353
|
Magnentius
|
Usurper; proclaimed emperor by the army; defeated by
Constantius II
and committed
suicide
|
c.
350
|
Vetranio
|
Proclaimed himself emperor against
Magnentius
; recognized by
Constantius II
but then deposed
|
c.
350
|
Nepotianus
|
Proclaimed himself emperor against
Magnentius
, defeated and executed
by
Magnentius
|
November 361 to June 363
|
Julian
|
Cousin of
Constantius II
; made Caesar by
Constantius, then proclaimed Augustus by the army; killed in battle
|
363 to 17 February 364
|
Jovian
|
Proclaimed emperor by the army after
Julian
‘s death
|
Valentinian
dynasty
Reign
|
Incumbent
|
Notes
|
26 February 364 to 17 November 375
|
Valentinian I
Valentinian I Coins.htm
|
Proclaimed emperor by the army after
Jovian
‘s death
|
28 March 365 to 9 August 378
|
Valens
|
Made co-emperor in the east by his brother
Valentinian I
; killed in battle
|
September 365 to 27 May 366
|
Procopius
|
Usurper; Proclaimed himself emperor; defeated and executed by
Valens
|
24 August 367 to 383
|
Gratian
Gratian Coins.htm
|
Son of
Valentinian I
; assassinated
|
375 to 392
|
Valentinian II
Valentinian II Coins.htm
|
Son of
Valentinian I
; deposed by
Arbogast
and died in suspicious
circumstances
|
383 to 388
|
Magnus Maximus
Magnus Maximus Coins.htm
|
Usurper; proclaimed emperor by troops; at one time recognized by
Theodosius I
, but then deposed and
executed
|
c.386
to 388
|
Flavius Victor
Flavius Victor Coins.htm
|
Son of Magnus Maximus, executed on orders of
Theodosius I
|
392 to 394
|
Eugenius
Eugenius Coins.htm
|
Usurper; proclaimed emperor by army under
Arbogast
; defeated in battle by
Theodosius I
|
Theodosian
dynasty
Reign
|
Incumbent
|
Notes
|
379 to 17 January 395
|
Theodosius I
Theodosius I Coins.htm
|
Made co-emperor for the east by
Gratian
|
383 to 408
EAST
|
Arcadius
Arcadius Coins.htm
|
Appointed co-emperor with his father
Theodosius I
; sole emperor for the
east from January 395
|
23 January 393 to 15 August 423
WEST
|
Honorius
Honorius Coins.htm
|
Appointed Augustus for the west by his father
Theodosius I
|
407 to 411
WEST
|
Constantine III
Constantine III Coins.htm
|
Usurper; proclaimed emperor in Britain; defeated by
Constantius III
|
409 to 411
WEST
|
Constans II
Constans II Coins.htm
|
Usurper; made emperor by his father
Constantine III
; killed in battle
|
409 and 414 to 415
WEST
|
Priscus Attalus
Priscus Attalus Coins.htm
|
Usurper; twice proclaimed emperor by
Visigoths
under
Alaric
and twice deposed by
Honorius
|
409 to 411
WEST
|
Maximus
Maximus Coins.htm
|
Usurper; proclaimed emperor in Spain; abdicated
|
411 to 413
WEST
|
Jovinus
Jovinus Coins.htm
|
Usurper; proclaimed emperor after
Constantine III
‘s death, executed
by
Honorius
|
412 to 413
WEST
|
Sebastianus
Sebastianus Coins.htm
|
Usurper; appointed co-emperor by
Jovinus
, executed by
Honorius
|
408 to 450
EAST
|
Theodosius II
Theodosius II Coins.htm
|
Son of
Arcadius
|
421 to 421
WEST
|
Constantius III
Constantius III Coins.htm
|
Son-in-law of
Theodosius I
; appointed co-emperor
by
Honorius
|
423 to 425
WEST
|
Joannes
Johannes Coins.htm
|
Proclaimed western emperor, initially undisputed; defeated and executed
by
Theodosius II
in favour of
Valentinian III
|
425 to 16 March 455
WEST
|
Valentinian III
Valentinian III Coins.htm
|
Son of
Constantius III
; appointed emperor
by
Theodosius II
; assassinated
|
Western
Roman Empire
Reign
|
Incumbent
|
Notes
|
17 March 455 to 31 May 455
|
Petronius Maximus
Petronius Maximus Coins.htm
|
Proclaimed himself emperor after
Valentinian III
‘s death; murdered
|
June 455 to 17 October 456
|
Avitus
Avitus Coins.htm
|
Proclaimed emperor by the
Visigoth
king
Theoderic II
; deposed by
Ricimer
|
457 to 2 August 461
|
Majorian
Majorian Coins.htm
|
Appointed by
Ricimer
; deposed and executed by
Ricimer
|
461 to 465
|
Libius Severus
Libius Severus Coins.htm
|
Appointed by
Ricimer
; deposed and executed by
Ricimer
|
12 April 467 to 11 July 472
|
Anthemius
Anthemius Coins.htm
|
Appointed by
Ricimer
; deposed and executed by
Ricimer
|
July 472 to 2 November 472
|
Olybrius
Olybrius Coins.htm
|
Appointed by
Ricimer
|
5 March 473 to June 474
|
Glycerius
Glycerius Coins.htm
|
Appointed by
Gundobad
; deposed by
Julius Nepos
|
June 474 to 25 April 480
|
Julius Nepos
Julius Nepos Coins.htm
|
Appointed by eastern emperor
Leo I
; deposed in Italy by
Orestes
in 475; continued to be
recognised as lawful emperor in Gaul and Dalmatia until his murder in
480
|
31 October 475 to 4 September 476
|
Romulus Augustus
(Romulus
Augustulus)
Romulus Augustus Coins.htm
|
Son of
Orestes
; deposed by
Odoacer
; fate unknown
|
Further information:
Barbarian kings of Italy
Eastern
Roman Empire
-
For
the rulers of the Eastern Roman Empire (also known as the
Byzantine Empire
) after
Theodosius II
, see:
List of Byzantine Emperors
Theodosian dynasty (395–457)
See also:
Theodosian dynasty
Name |
Reign |
Comments |
|
Theodosius I “the Great”
(Θεοδόσιος Α’ ο Μέγας, Flavius Theodosius)Theodosius
I Coins.htm |
19 January 379 –
17 January 395 |
Born on 11 January 347. Aristocrat and military leader,
brother-in-law of Gratian, who appointed him as emperor of the East.
From 392 until his death sole Roman emperor |
|
Arcadius
(Αρκάδιος, Flavius Arcadius)Arcadius
Coins.htm |
17 January 395 –
1 May 408 |
Born in 377/378, the eldest son of Theodosius I.
Succeeded upon the death of his father |
|
Theodosius II
(Θεοδόσιος Β’, Flavius Theodosius)
Theodosius II Coins.htm |
1 May 408 –
28 July 450 |
Born on 10 April 401, the only son of Arcadius.
Succeeded upon the death of his father. As a minor, the praetorian
prefect
Anthemius
was regent in 408–414. He
died in a riding accident |
|
Marcian
(Μαρκιανός, Flavius Valerius Marcianus)
Marcian Coins.htm
|
450 – January 457 |
Born in 396. A soldier and
politician, he became emperor after being wed by the Augusta
Pulcheria
, Theodosius II’s sister,
following the latter’s death. Died of
gangrene
|
Leonid
dynasty (457–518)
See also:
House of Leo
Name |
Reign |
Comments |
|
Leo I “the Thracian”
(Λέων Α’ ο Θράξ, Flavius Valerius Leo)
Leo I Coins.htm
|
7 February 457 –
18 January 474 |
Born in
Dacia
in 401. A common soldier, he was
chosen by Aspar
, commander-in-chief of the army.
Died of dysentery |
|
Leo II
(Λέων Β’, Flavius Leo)
Leo II
Coins.htm
|
18 January –
17 November 474 |
Born in 467, the grandson of Leo I. Succeeded upon the
death of Leo I. Died of an unknown disease, possibly poisoned |
|
Zeno
(Ζήνων, Flavius Zeno)
Zeno Coins.htm
|
17 November 474 –
9 April 491 |
Born c.425 at
Zenonopolis
,
Isauria
, originally named
Tarasicodissa. Son-in-law of Leo I, he was bypassed in the succession
because of his barbarian origin. Named co-emperor by his son on 9
February 474, he succeeded upon the death of Leo II. Deposed by
Basiliscus, brother-in-law of Leo, he fled to his native country and
regained the throne in August 476. |
|
Basiliscus
(Βασιλίσκος, Flavius Basiliscus)
Basiliscus Coins.htm
|
9 January 475 –
August 476 |
General and brother-in-law of Leo I, he seized power
from Zeno but was again deposed by him. Died in 476/477 |
|
Anastasius I
(Αναστάσιος Α’, Flavius Anastasius)
BYZANTINE – Anastasius
Coins.htm
|
11 April 491 –
9 July 518 |
Born c. 430 at
Dyrrhachium
,
Epirus nova
. A palace official (silentiarius)
and son-in-law of Leo I, he was chosen as emperor by empress-dowager
Ariadne
|
Justinian Dynasty
Main article:
Justinian Dynasty
Portrait |
Name |
Born |
Reigned |
Succession |
Died |
|
Justin I
FLAVIVS IVSTINVS AVGVSTVS |
c. 450 AD,
Naissus
|
July 9, 518 AD – August 1, 527 AD |
Commander of the palace guard under
Anastasius I)
; elected as emperor with
support of army |
August 1, 527 AD
Natural causes |
|
Justinian I
FLAVIVS PETRVS SABBATIVS IVSTINIANVS AVGVSTVS |
c. 482 AD,
Tauresium
,
Dardania
|
August 1, 527 AD – 13/14 November 565 AD |
Nephew and nominated heir of
Justin I
|
13/14 November 565 AD
Natural causes |
|
Justin II
FLAVIVS IVSTINIVS IVNIOR AVGVSTVS |
c. 520 AD, ? |
13/14 November 565 AD – 578 AD |
Nephew of
Justinian I
|
578 AD
Became insane;
Tiberius II Constantine
ruled as regent
from December 574 and became emperor on Justin’s death in 578 |
Roman Late Monogram Coins.htm
Roman AE4 Coins.htm
See also
-
Roman Republic
-
Roman Empire
-
Western Roman Empire
-
Byzantine Empire
-
Britannic Empire
-
Gallic Empire
-
List of Roman usurpers
-
Roman usurper
-
Thirty Tyrants (Roman)
|