SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS sacrificing RARE Emesa mint Ancient Silver Roman Coin i39522

• 
  

  Libation at a
  symposium
  (Attic
  red-figure cup, ca. 480 BC)

• 
  

  Apollo pouring a libation (Attic
  white-ground

  kylix
  , ca. 460 BC)

• 
  

  Etruscan priest with phiale (2nd century BC)

• 
  

  Roman priest,
  capite velato
  (2nd–3rd century
  AD)

A veil is an article of clothing or cloth hanging that is intended to
cover some part of the
head
or

face, or an object of some significance. It is especially associated
with women and sacred objects.

One view is that as a religious item, it is intended to show honor to an
object or space. The actual sociocultural, psychological, and sociosexual
functions of veils have not been studied extensively but most likely include the
maintenance of social distance and the communication of social status and
cultural identity. In Islamic society, various forms of the veil have been
adopted from the Arab culture in which Islam arose. The
Quran
has no requirement that women cover their
faces with a veil, or cover their bodies with the full-body
burqua
or
chador
.

History

The first recorded instance of veiling for women is recorded in an
Assyrian
legal text from the 13th century BC,
which restricted its use to noble women and forbade prostitutes and common women
from adopting it.^{[citation
needed]} The
Mycenaean Greek
term a-pu-ko-wo-ko
meaning “craftsman of horse veil” written in
Linear B
syllabic script is also attested since
ca. 1300 BC. In
ancient Greek
the word for veil was “καλύπτρα”
(kaluptra,
Ionic Greek
“καλύπτρη” – kaluptrē, from
the verb “καλύπτω” – kaluptō, “I cover”) and is first attested in the
works of Homer
.

Classical Greek and Hellenistic statues sometimes depict Greek women with
both their head and face covered by a veil. Caroline Galt and Lloyd
Llewellyn-Jones have both argued from such representations and literary
references that it was commonplace for women (at least those of higher status)
in ancient Greece to cover their hair and face in public.

For many centuries, until around 1175,
Anglo-Saxon
and then
Anglo-Norman
women, with the exception of young
unmarried girls, wore veils that entirely covered their hair, and often their
necks up to their chins (see
wimple
). Only in the
Tudor period
(1485), when
hoods
became increasingly popular, did veils of
this type become less common.

For centuries, women have worn sheer veils, but only under certain
circumstances. Sometimes a veil of this type was draped over and pinned to the
bonnet
or hat of a woman in
mourning
, especially at the
funeral
and during the subsequent period of
“high mourning”. They would also have been used, as an alternative to a

mask, as a simple method of hiding the identity of a woman who was
traveling to meet a lover, or doing anything she didn’t want other people to
find out about. More pragmatically, veils were also sometimes worn to protect
the complexion from sun and wind damage (when un-tanned skin was fashionable),
or to keep dust out of a woman’s face, much as the
keffiyeh
is used today.

Religion

In Judaism
,
Christianity
and
Islam
the concept of covering the head is or
was associated with propriety and modesty. Most traditional depictions of the
Virgin Mary
, the mother of
Christ
, show her veiled. During the
Middle Ages
most European and Byzantine married
women covered their hair rather than their face, with a variety of styles of
wimple
, kerchiefs and headscarfs. Veiling,
covering the hair rather than the face, was a common practice with church-going
women until the 1960s, typically using

lace, and a number of very traditional churches retain the custom.
Lace face-veils are still often worn by female relatives at funerals.

In North India, Hindu women may often veil for traditional purposes, it is
often the custom in rural areas to veil in front of male elders. This veil is
called the Ghoonghat
or Laaj. This is to show humility and
respect to those elder to the woman, in particular elder males. The ghoonghat is
customary especially in the westerly states of
Gujarat
and
Rajasthan
.

Although religion stands as a commonly held reason for choosing to veil, it
has also reflects on political regimes and personal conviction, allowing it to
serve as a medium through which personal character can be revealed.

Praying Jewish woman wearing
Tichel

Judaism

After the
destruction of the Temple
in
Jerusalem
, the
synagogues
that were established took the
design of the
Tabernacle
as their plan. The
Ark of the Law
, which contains the
scrolls
of the
Torah
, is covered with an embroidered curtain
or veil called a
parokhet
. (See also
below
regarding the veiling – and unveiling –
of the bride.)

The
Veil of our Lady
is a liturgical feast
celebrating the protection afforded by the
intercessions
of the Virgin Mary.

Traditionally, in Christianity, women were enjoined to cover their heads in
church, just as it was (and still is) customary for men to remove their hat as a
sign of respect. This practice is based on
1 Corinthians 11:4–16
, where
St. Paul
writes:

Any man who prays or prophesies with his head covered brings shame upon
his head. But any woman who prays or prophesies with her head unveiled
brings shame upon her head, for it is one and the same thing as if she had
had her head shaved. For if a woman does not have her head veiled, she may
as well have her hair cut off. But if it is shameful for a woman to have her
hair cut off or her head shaved, then she should wear a veil. A man, on the
other hand, should not cover his head, because he is the image and glory of
God, but woman is the glory of man. For man did not come from woman, but
woman from man; nor was man created for woman, but woman for man; for this
reason a woman should have a sign of authority on her head, because of the
angels. Woman is not independent of man or man of woman in the Lord. For
just as woman came from man, so man is born of woman; but all things are
from God. Judge for yourselves: is it proper for a woman to pray to God with
her head unveiled? Does not nature itself teach you that if a man wears his
hair long it is a disgrace to him, whereas if a woman has long hair it is
her glory, because long hair has been given (her) for a covering? But if
anyone is inclined to be argumentative, we do not have such a custom, nor do
the churches of God (New
American Bible translation)

In many traditional
Eastern Orthodox Churches
, and in some very
conservative
Protestant
churches as well, the custom
continues of women covering their heads in church (or even when praying
privately at home).

In the
Roman Catholic Church
, it was customary in most
places before the 1960s for women to wear a headcovering in the form of a scarf,
cap, veil or hat when entering a church. The practice now continues where it is
seen as a matter of etiquette, courtesy, tradition or fashionable elegance
rather than strictly of canon law.
Traditionalist Catholics
also maintain the
practice.

The wearing of a headcovering was for the first time mandated as a universal
rule for the
Latin Rite
by the
Code of Canon Law of 1917
, which code was
abrogated by the advent of the present (1983) Code of Canon Law. Traditionalist
Catholics majorly still follow it, generally as a matter of ancient custom and
biblically approved aptness, some also supposing St. Paul’s directive in full
force today as an ordinance of its own right, without a canon law rule enforcing
it. The photograph here of Mass in the
Netherlands
in about 1946, two decades before
the changes that followed the
Second Vatican Council
, shows that, even at
that time, when a hat was still considered part of formal dress for both women
and men, wearing a headcovering at Mass was not a universal practice for
Catholic women.

A veil over the hair rather than the face forms part of the headdress of some
religiouss
of

nuns or
religious
sisters; this is why a woman who
becomes a nun is said “to take the veil”. In medieval times married women
normally covered their hair outside the house, and nun’s veils are based on
secular medieval styles, reflecting nuns position as “brides of Christ”. In many
institutes, a white veil is used as the “veil of probation” during
novitiate
, and a dark veil for the “veil of
profession” once religious vows are taken – the color scheme varies with the
color scheme of the habit of the order. A veil of
consecration
, longer and fuller, is used by
some orders for final profession of
solemn vows
.

Nuns
also wear veils

Nuns are the female counterparts of

monks, and many
monastic orders
of women have retained the
veil. Regarding other institutes of religious sisters who are not
cloistered
but who work as teachers, nurses or
in other “active” apostolates outside of a nunnery or monastery, some wear the
veil, while some others have abolished the use of the veil, a few never had a
veil to start with, but used a bonnet-style headdress even a century ago, as in
the case of
St. Elizabeth Ann Seton
.

The fullest versions of the nun’s veil cover the top of the head and flow
down around and over the shoulders. In Western Christianity, it does not wrap
around the neck or face. In those orders that retain one, the starched white
covering about the face neck and shoulders is known as a
wimple
and is a separate garment.

The Catholic Church has revived the ancient practice of allowing women to
profess a solemn vow as
consecrated virgins
. These women are set aside
as sacred persons who belong only to Christ and the service of the church. They
are under the direct care of the local
bishop
, without belonging to a particular order
and receive the veil as a
sign
of
consecration
.

There has also been renewed interest in the last half century in the ancient
practice of women and men dedicating themselves as
anchorites
or
hermits
, and there is a formal process whereby
such persons can seek recognition of their vows by the local bishop – a veil for
these women would also be traditional.

Some Anglican
women’s religious orders also wear a
veil, differing according to the traditions of each order.

In
Eastern Orthodoxy
and in the
Eastern Rites
of the Catholic Church, a veil
called an
epanokamelavkion
is used by both nuns and
monks, in both cases covering completely the
kamilavkion
, a cylindrical hat they both
wear. In
Slavic
practice, when the veil is worn over the
hat, the entire headdress
is referred to as a
klobuk
. Nuns wear an additional veil under
the klobuk, called an
apostolnik
, which is drawn together to
cover the neck and shoulders as well as their heads, leaving the face itself
open.

Islam

A variety of headdresses worn by
Muslim women
and girls in accordance with
hijab
(the principle of dressing modestly)
are sometimes referred to as veils. The principal aim of the Muslim veil is to
hide that which men find sexually attractive. Many of these garments cover the
hair, ears and throat, but do not cover the face. The
khimar
is a type of
headscarf
. The
niqāb
and
burqa
are two kinds of veils that cover
most of the face except for a slit or hole for the eyes.

The Afghan
burqa covers the entire body, obscuring
the face completely, except for a grille or netting over the eyes to allow the
wearer to see. The
boshiya
is a veil that may be worn over a
headscarf; it covers the entire face and is made of a sheer fabric so the wearer
is able to see through it. It has been suggested that
the practice of wearing a veil
 – uncommon among
the Arab
tribes prior to the rise of
Islam
 – originated in the
Byzantine Empire
, and then spread.

The wearing of head and especially face coverings by Muslim women has raised
political issues in the West; see for example
Hijab controversy in Quebec
,
Islamic dress controversy in Europe
,
Islamic scarf controversy in France
, and
United Kingdom debate over veils
. There is also
high debate of the veil in
Turkey
, a
Muslim majority country
but secular, which
banned the headscarves in universities and government buildings, due to the
türban (a Turkish styled headscarf) being viewed as
a political symbol of Islam
, see
Headscarf controversy in Turkey
.

Frances Perkins
wearing a veil
after the death of U.S. President
Franklin D. Roosevelt

Hats

Veils pinned to hats have survived the changing fashions of the centuries and
are still common today on formal occasions that require women to wear a hat.
However, these veils are generally made of netting or another material not
actually designed to hide the face from view, even if the veil can be pulled
down.

Wedding veils

An occasion on which a Western woman is likely to wear a veil is on her
white wedding
day.
Brides
once used to wear their hair flowing
down their back at their wedding to symbolise their virginity. Veils covering
the hair and face became a symbolic reference to the virginity of the bride
thereafter. Often in modern weddings, the ceremony of removing a face veil after
the wedding to present the groom with a virgin bride is skipped, since many
couples have already entered into conjugal relations prior to their wedding
day – the bride either wears no face veil, or it is lifted before the ceremony
begins, but this is not always the case. Further, if a bride is a virgin, she
often wears the face veil through the ceremony, and then either her father lifts
the veil, presenting the bride to her groom, or the groom lifts the veil to
symbolically consummate the marriage, which will later become literal. Brides
who are virgins may make use of the veil to symbolize and emphasize their status
of purity during their wedding however, and if they do, the lifting of the veil
may be ceremonially recognized as the crowning event of the wedding, when the
beauty of the bride is finally revealed to the groom and the guests. It is not
altogether clear that the wedding veil is a non-religious use of this item,
since weddings have almost always had religious underpinnings, especially in the
West. Veils, however, had been used in the West for weddings long before this.
Roman brides, for instance, wore an intensely flame-colored and fulsome veil,
called the flammeum, apparently intended to protect the bride from
evil spirits
on her wedding day. Later, the
so-called velatio virginum became part of the rite of the
consecration of virgins
, the liturgical rite in
which the church sets aside the virgin as a sacred person who belongs only to
Christ.

In the 19th century, wedding veils came to symbolize the woman’s
virginity
and
modesty
. The tradition of a veiled bride’s face
continues even today wherein, a virgin bride, especially in Christian or Jewish
culture, enters the marriage ritual with a veiled face and head, and remains
fully veiled, both head and face, until the ceremony concludes. After the full
conclusion of the wedding ceremony, either the bride’s father lifts the veil
giving the bride to the groom who then kisses her, or the new groom lifts her
face veil in order to kiss her, which symbolizes the groom’s right to enter into
conjugal relations with his bride.

The lifting of the veil was often a part of ancient wedding ritual,
symbolizing the
groom
taking possession of the wife, either as
lover or as property, or the revelation of the bride by her parents to the groom
for his approval.

A bride wearing a typical wedding veil

In Judaism, the tradition of wearing a veil dates back to biblical times.
According to the Torah in
Genesis 24:65
, Isaac is brought Rebekah to
marry by his father Abraham’s servant. It is important to note that Rebekah did
not veil herself when traveling with her lady attendants and Abraham’s servant
and his men to meet Isaac, but she only did so when Isaac was approaching. Just
before the wedding ceremony the
badeken
or bedeken is held. The groom places
the veil over the bride’s face, and either he or the officiating Rabbi gives her
a blessing. The veil stays on her face until just before the end of the wedding
ceremony – when they are legally married according to Jewish law – then the
groom helps lift the veil from off her face.

The most often cited interpretation for the
badeken
is that, according to
Genesis 29
, when Jacob went to marry Rachel,
his father in law Laban tricked him into marrying Leah, Rachel’s older and
homlier sister. Many say that the veiling ceremony takes place to make sure that
the groom is marrying the right bride. Some say that as the groom places the
veil over his bride, he makes an implicit promise to clothe and protect her.
Finally, by covering her face, the groom recognizes that he his marrying the
bride for her inner beauty; while looks will fade with time, his love will be
everlasting. In some ultra-orthodox traditions the bride wears an opaque veil as
she is escorted down the aisle to meet her groom. This shows her complete
willingness to enter into the marriage and her absolute trust that she is
marrying the right man. In Judaism, a wedding is not considered valid unless the
bride willingly consents to it.

In ancient Judaism
the lifting of the veil took place just
prior to the consummation of the marriage in sexual union. The uncovering or
unveiling that takes place in the
wedding ceremony
is a symbol of what will take
place in the marriage bed. Just as the two become one through their words spoken
in wedding vows, so these words are a sign of the physical oneness that they
will consummate later on. The lifting of the veil is a symbol and an
anticipation of this.

In the
Western world
,
St. Paul’s
words concerning how marriage
symbolizes the union of Christ and His Church may underlie part of the tradition
of veiling in the marriage ceremony.

Dance

Veils are part of the stereotypical images of courtesans and harem women.
Here, the mysterious veil hints at sensuality, an example being the dance of the
seven veils. This is the context into which belly dancing veils fall, with a
large repertoire of ways to wear and hold the veil, framing the body and
accentuating movements. Dancing veils can be as small as a scarf or two, silk
veils mounted on fans, a half circle, three-quarter circle, full circle, a
rectangle up to four feet long, and as large as huge Isis wings with sticks for
extensions. There is also a giant canopy type veil used by a group of dancers.
Veils are made of rayon, silk, polyester, mylar and other fabrics (never wool,
though). Rarely used in Egyptian cabaret style, veil dancing has always played
an important part in the international world of belly dance, extending the range
of the dance and offering lovely transitory imagery.

Courtesans

Conversely, veils are often part of the stereotypical image of the
courtesan
and
harem
woman. Here, rather than the virginity of
the bride’s veil, modesty of the Muslim scarf or the piety of the nun’s
headdress, the mysterious veil hints at sensuality and the unknown. An example
of the veil’s erotic potential is the
dance of the seven veils
.

In this context, the term may refer to a piece of sheer cloth approximately 3
x 1.5 metres, sometimes trimmed with sequins or coins, which is used in various
styles of belly dancing
. A large repertoire of ways to
wear and hold the veil exists, many of which are intended to frame the body from
the perspective of the audience.

Veils for men

Among the
Tuareg
,
Songhai
,
Moors
,
Hausa
. and
Fulani
of
West Africa
, women do not traditionally wear
the veil, while men do. The men’s facial covering originates from the belief
that such action wards off evil spirits, but most probably relates to protection
against the harsh desert sands as well; in any event, it is a firmly established
tradition. Men begin wearing a veil at age 25 which conceals their entire face
excluding their eyes. This veil is never removed, even in front of family
members.

In India
,
Pakistan
,
Bangladesh
, and
Nepal
, men wear a
sehra
on their wedding day. This is a male
veil covering the whole face and neck. The sehra is made from either flowers,
beads, tinsel, dry leaves, or coconuts. The most common sehra is made from fresh
marigolds. The groom wears this throughout the day concealing his face even
during the wedding ceremony. In India today you can see the groom arriving on a
horse with the sehra wrapped around his head.

Etymology

“Veil” came from Latin
vēlum, which also means “sail“.
There are two theories about the origin of the word vēlum:-

• Via the “covering” meaning, from (Indo-European
  root
  ) *wel– = “to cover, to
  enclose”.
• Via the “sail” meaning, from Indo-European *weghslom, from root *wegh-
  = “way” or “carry in a vehicle”, because it makes the ship move.

L/b>ucius Septimius Severus (or rarely Severus I) (April 11,

.

Septimius Severus was born and raised at

Gaius Fulvius Plautianus.

In 172, Severus was made a

Senator

by the then emperor

Marcus Aurelius

. In 187 he married secondly

Julia

omna
. In 190 Severus became

consul
, and in

the following year received from the emperor

Commodus

(successor to Marcus Aurelius) the command of the

legions

in Pannonia
.

On the murder of

Pertinax
by

the troops in 193, they proclaimed Severus Emperor at

Carnuntum
,

whereupon he hurried to Italy. The former emperor,

Didius Julianus

, was condemned to death by the Senate and killed, and

Severus took possession of Rome without opposition.

The legions of

a title=”Syria (Roman province)” href=”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province%2529″>

Syria, however, had proclaimed

Pescennius Niger

emperor. At the same time, Severus felt it was reasonable

to offer

Clodius Albinus

, the powerful governor of Britannia who had probably

supported Didius against him, the rank of Caesar, which implied some claim to

succession. With his rearguard safe, he moved to the East and crushed Niger’s

forces at the

Battle of Issus

. The following year was devoted to suppressing Mesopotamia

and other Parthian vassals who had backed Niger. When afterwards Severus

declared openly his son

Caracalla

as successor, Albinus was hailed emperor by his troops and moved to Gallia.

Severus, after a short stay in Rome, moved northwards to meet him. On

February

19
, 197
,

in the

Battle of Lugdunum

, with an army of 100,000 men, mostly composed of

Illyrian
,

Moesian
and

Dacian
legions,

Severus defeated and killed Clodius Albinus, securing his full control over the

Empire.

Emperor

Severus was at heart a

soldier
, and

sought glory through military exploits. In 197 he waged a brief and successful

war against the

Parthian Empire

in retaliation for the support given to Pescennius Niger.

The Parthian capital

Ctesiphon

was sacked by the legions, and the northern half of

Mesopotamia

was restored to Rome.

His relations with the

Roman

Senate
were never good. He was unpopular with them from the outset, having

seized power with the help of the military, and he returned the sentiment.

Severus ordered the execution of dozens of Senators on charges of corruption and

conspiracy

against him, replacing them with his own favorites.

He also disbanded the

Praetorian Guard

and replaced it with one of his own, made up of 50,000

loyal soldiers mainly camped at

Albanum

, near Rome (also probably to grant the emperor a kind of centralized

reserve). During his reign the number of legions was also increased from 25/30

to 33. He also increased the number of auxiliary corps (numerii), many of

these troops coming from the Eastern borders. Additionally the annual wage for a

soldier was raised from 300 to 500

denarii
.

Although his actions turned Rome into a military

dictatorship

, he was popular with the citizens of Rome, having stamped out

the rampant corruption of Commodus’s reign. When he returned from his victory

over the Parthians, he erected the

Arch of Septimius Severus

in Rome.

According to Cassius Dio,

however, after 197 Severus fell heavily under the influence of his Praetorian

Prefect,

Gaius Fulvius Plautianus

, who came to have almost total control of most

branches of the imperial administration. Plautianus’s daughter,

Fulvia Plautilla

, was married to Severus’s son, Caracalla. Plautianus’s

excessive power came to an end in 205, when he was denounced by the Emperor’s

dying brother and killed.

The two following praefecti, including the jurist

Aemilius Papinianus

, received however even larger powers.

Campaigns in Caledonia (Scotland)

Starting from 208 Severus undertook a number of military actions in

Roman

Britain
, reconstructing

Hadrian’s Wall

and campaigning in

Scotland
.

He reached the area of the

Moray

Firth
in his last campaign in Caledonia, as was called Scotland by
the Romans..

In 210 obtained a peace with the

Picts
that lasted

practically until the final withdrawal of the Roman legions from Britain,

before falling severely ill in

Eboracum
(York).

Death

He is famously said to have given the advice to his sons: “Be harmonious,

enrich the soldiers, and scorn all other men” before he died at Eboracum on

February 4
,

211. Upon his death in 211, Severus was

deified

by the Senate and succeeded by his sons,

Caracalla

and

Geta

, who were advised by his wife

Julia

Domna
. The stability Severus provided the Empire was soon gone under their reign.

Accomplishments and Record

Though his military expenditure was costly to the empire, Severus was the

strong, able ruler that Rome needed at the time. He began a tradition of

effective emperors elevated solely by the military. His policy of an expanded

and better-rewarded army was criticized by his contemporary

Dio Cassius

and

Herodianus

: in particular, they pointed out the increasing burden (in the

form of taxes and services) the civilian population had to bear to maintain the

new army.

Severus was also distinguished for his buildings. Apart from the triumphal

arch in the Roman Forum carrying his full name, he also built the

Septizodium

in Rome and enriched greatly his native city of

Leptis

Magna
(including another triumphal arch on the occasion of his visit of

203).

Severus and Christianity

Christians were

persecuted

during the reign of Septimus Severus. Severus allowed the

enforcement of policies already long-established, which meant that Roman

authorities did not intentionally seek out Christians, but when people were

accused of being Christians they could either curse

Jesus
and make an

offering to

Roman gods

, or be executed. Furthermore, wishing to strengthen the peace by

encouraging religious harmony through

syncretism
,

Severus tried to limit the spread of the two quarrelsome groups who refused to

yield to syncretism by outlawing

conversion

to Christianity or

Judaism
.

Individual officials availed themselves of the laws to proceed with rigor

against the Christians. Naturally the emperor, with his strict conception of

law, did not hinder such partial persecution, which took place in

Egypt
and the

Thebaid
, as

well as in

Africa proconsularis

and the East. Christian

martyrs
were

numerous in Alexandria

(cf.

Clement of Alexandria

, Stromata, ii. 20;

Eusebius

, Church History, V., xxvi., VI., i.). No less severe were

the persecutions in Africa, which seem to have begun in 197 or 198 (cf.

Tertullian’s

Ad martyres), and included the Christians known in the

Roman martyrology

as the martyrs of

Madaura
.

Probably in 202 or 203

Felicitas

and

Perpetua

suffered for their faith. Persecution again raged for a short time

under the proconsul

Scapula
in

211, especially in

Numidia
and

Mauritania
.

Later accounts of a Gallic

persecution, especially at

Lyon, are

legendary. In general it may thus be said that the position of the Christians

under Septimius Severus was the same as under the

Antonines
;

but the law of this Emperor at least shows clearly that the

rescript
of

Trajan
had failed to execute its purpose.

---

The Principate

 Julio-Claudian
dynasty

Reign	Incumbent	Notes
16 January 27 BC to 19 August AD 14	Augustus
19 August 14 to 16 March 37	Tiberius
18 March 37 to 24 January 41	Caligula	Murdered by Praetorian Guard
24 January 41 to 13 October 54	Claudius	Poisoned by his wife Agrippina, mother of Nero
13 October 54 to 11 June 68	Nero	Made a slave kill him

 Year
of the Four Emperors (Civil War)

Reign	Incumbent	Notes
8 June 68 to 15 January 69	Galba	Murdered in favour of Otho
15 January 69 to 16 April 69	Otho	Committed suicide
2 January 69 to 20 December 69	Vitellius	Murdered in favour of Vespasian

 Flavian
dynasty

Reign	Incumbent	Notes
1 July 69 to 24 June 79	Vespasian
24 June 79 to 13 September 81	Titus	Possibly assassinated by Domitian
14 September 81 to 18 September 96	Domitian	Assassinated

 Nervan-Antonian
dynasty

Main article:
Five Good Emperors

Reign	Incumbent	Notes
18 September 96 to 27 January 98	Nerva	Proclaimed emperor by senate
28 January 98 to 7 August 117	Trajan
11 August 117 to 10 July 138	Hadrian
10 July 138 to 7 March 161	Antoninus Pius
7 March 161 to 17 March 180	Marcus Aurelius
7 March 161 to March 169	Lucius Verus	Co-emperor with Marcus Aurelius
175	Avidius Cassius	Usurper; ruled in Egypt and Syria; murdered by his own army
177 to 31 December 192	Commodus	Assassinated

 Year
of the Five Emperors &
Severan dynasty

Reign	Incumbent	Notes
1 January 193 to 28 March 193	Pertinax	Proclaimed emperor by senate; murdered by Praetorian Guard
28 March 193 to 1 June 193	Didius Julianus	Proclaimed emperor by Praetorian Guard; executed on orders of the Senate
9 April 193 to 4 February 211	Septimius Severus	Proclaimed emperor by Pannonian troops; accepted by senate
193 to 194/195	Pescennius Niger	Proclaimed emperor by Syrian troops, defeated in battle by Septimius Severus
193/195 to 197	Clodius Albinus	Proclaimed emperor by British troops, defeated in battle by Septimius Severus
198 to 8 April 217	Caracalla	Assassinated at the behest of Macrinus
209 to 4 February 211	Geta	Co-emperor with Caracalla ; assassinated on orders of Caracalla
11 April 217 to June 218	Macrinus	Proclaimed himself emperor; executed on orders of Elagabalus
May 217 to June 218	Diadumenian	Junior co-emperor under Macrinus ; executed
June 218 to 222	Elagabalus	Proclaimed emperor by army; murdered by his own troops
13 March 222 to ?March 235	Alexander Severus	Murdered by his own troops

 Rulers during the
Crisis of the Third Century

Reign	Incumbent	Notes
February/March 235 to March/April 238	Maximinus Thrax	Proclaimed emperor by the army; murdered by Praetorian Guard
earlyJanuary/March 238 to lateJanuary/April 238	Gordian I	Proclaimed emperor in Africa; committed suicide after Gordian II ‘s death
earlyJanuary March 238 to lateJanuary/April 238	Gordian II	Proclaimed emperor with Gordian I , killed in battle
earlyFebruary 238 to earlyMay 238	Pupienus	Proclaimed joint emperor by senate; murdered by Praetorian Guard
earlyFebruary 238 to earlyMay 238	Balbinus	Proclaimed joint emperor by senate; murdered by Praetorian Guard
May 238 to February 244	Gordian III	Nephew of Gordian II ; death unclear, probably murdered
240	Sabinianus	Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor; defeated in battle
February 244 to September/October 249	Philip the Arab	Proclaimed emperor after death of Gordian III ; killed in battle by Decius
248	Pacatianus	Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor; murdered by his own soldiers
248 to 249	Iotapianus	Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor in the east; murdered by his own soldiers
248? or 253?	Silbannacus	Usurper; details essentially unknown
249 to June 251	Decius	Killed in battle
249 to 252	Priscus	Proclaimed himself emperor in the east in opposition to Decius
250 to 250	Licinianus	Usurper; proclaimed emperor in Rome; rebellion suppressed
early251 to June 251	Herennius Etruscus	Junior co-emperor under Decius ; killed in battle
251	Hostilian	Son of Decius ; died of plague
June 251 to August 253	Gallus	Proclaimed emperor by his troops after Decius’s death; murdered by them in favour of Aemilianus
July 251 to August 253	Volusianus	Junior co-emperor under Gallus ; murdered by army
August 253 to October 253	Aemilian	Proclaimed emperor by his troops; murdered by them in favour of Valerian
253 to June 260	Valerian	Proclaimed emperor by his troops; captured in battle by the Persians ; died in captivity
253 to September 268	Gallienus	Junior co-emperor under Valerian to 260; probably murdered by his generals
260	Saloninus	Son of Gallienus ; proclaimed emperor by army; murdered shortly after by troops of Postumus
June 260 (or 258)	Ingenuus	Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor after Valerian ‘s capture; defeated in battle
260	Regalianus	Usurper; proclaimed emperor after Ingenuus ‘s defeat; fate unclear
260 to 261	Macrianus Major	Usurper; proclaimed emperor by eastern army; defeated and killed in battle
260 to 261	Macrianus Minor	Usurper; son of Macrianus Major ; defeated and killed in battle
260 to 261	Quietus	Usurper; son of Macrianus Major ; defeated and killed in battle
261 to 261 or 262	Mussius Aemilianus	Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor after the defeat of the Macriani; defeated and executed
268 to 268	Aureolus	Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor after Gallienus ‘s death; surrendered to Claudius II Gothicus ; murdered by Praetorian Guard
268 to August 270	Claudius II Gothicus	Proclaimed emperor by the army
August 270 to September 270	Quintillus	Proclaimed himself emperor; cause of death unclear
August 270 to 275	Aurelian	Proclaimed emperor by army; murdered by the Praetorian Guard
271 to 271	Septimius	Usurper; proclaimed emperor in Dalmatia ; killed by his own soldiers
November/December 275 to July 276	Tacitus	Appointed emperor by the Senate; possibly assassinated
July 276 to September 276	Florianus	Brother of Tacitus , proclaimed emperor by the western army; murdered by his troops
July 276 to lateSeptember 282	Probus	Proclaimed emperor by the eastern army; murdered by his own soldiers in favour of Carus
280	Julius Saturninus	Usurper; proclaimed emperor by his troops; then killed by them
280	Proculus	Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor at the request of the people of Lugdunum ; executed by Probus
280	Bonosus	Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor; defeated by Probus and committed suicide
September 282 to July/August 283	Carus	Proclaimed emperor by Praetorian guard
spring 283 to summer 285	Carinus	Son of Carus; co-emperor with Numerian ; fate unclear
July/August 283 to November 284	Numerian	Son of Carus; co-emperor with Carinus ; probably murdered

 Gallic
Empire
260
to 274

Reign	Incumbent	Notes
260 to 268	Postumus	Declared himself emperor after Valerian ‘s death; killed by his own troops
268 to 268	Laelianus	Proclaimed himself emperor in opposition to Postumus; defeated and killed by Postumus
269 to 269	Marius	Proclaimed himself emperor after Postumus’s death
269 to 271	Victorinus	Proclaimed emperor after Marius’s death
270 to 271	Domitianus	Proclaimed himself emperor of the Gallic Empire
271 to 274	Tetricus I	Nominated heir to Victorinus

 Britannic
Empire
286
to 297

Reign	Incumbent	Notes
286 to 293	Carausius	Declared himself emperor; assassinated by Allectus
293 to 297	Allectus	Declared himself emperor after Carausius ‘s death; defeated by Constantius Chlorus

 Dominate

 Tetrarchy
and
Constantinian dynasty

Reign	Incumbent	Notes
20 November 284 to 1 May 305	Diocletian	Declared emperor by the army after Numerian’s death; Abdicated
1 April 286 to 1 May 305	Maximian	Made co-emperor (‘Augustus’) with Diocletian ; abdicated
1 May 305 to 25 July 306	Constantius I Chlorus	Made junior co-emperor (‘Caesar’) under Maximian ; became Augustus after his abdication
1 May 305 to May 311	Galerius	Made junior co-emperor (‘Caesar’) under Diocletian ; became Augustus after his abdication
August 306 to 16 September 307	Severus II	Made junior co-emperor (‘Caesar’) under Constantius Chlorus ; became Augustus after his death; executed by Maxentius
28 October 306 to 28 October 312	Maxentius	Son of Maximian ; proclaimed Augustus by Praetorian Guard ; defeated in battle by Constantine I
de jure: 307, de facto 312 to 22 May 337	Constantine I	Son of Constantius Chlorus ; proclaimed Augustus by army
308 –309?/311?	Domitius Alexander	Proclaimed emperor in Africa; defeated in battle by Maxentius
11 November 308 to 18 September 324	Licinius	Appointed Augustus by Galerius ; deposed by Constantine I and executed
1 May 311 to July/August 313	Maximinus Daia	Made junior co-emperor (‘Caesar’) under Galerius ; became Augustus after his death; defeated in battle by Licinius and committed suicide
December 316 to 1 March 317	Valerius Valens	Appointed co-Augustus by Licinius ; executed by Licinius
July to 18 September 324	Martinianus	Appointed co-Augustus by Licinius ; deposed by Constantine I and executed
337 to 340	Constantine II	Son of Constantine I ; co-emperor with his brothers; killed in battle
337 to 361	Constantius II	Son of Constantine I ; co-emperor with his brothers
337 to 350	Constans I	Son of Constantine I ; co-emperor with his brothers, killed by Magnentius
January 350 to 11 August 353	Magnentius	Usurper; proclaimed emperor by the army; defeated by Constantius II and committed suicide
c. 350	Vetranio	Proclaimed himself emperor against Magnentius ; recognized by Constantius II but then deposed
c. 350	Nepotianus	Proclaimed himself emperor against Magnentius , defeated and executed by Magnentius
November 361 to June 363	Julian	Cousin of Constantius II ; made Caesar by Constantius, then proclaimed Augustus by the army; killed in battle
363 to 17 February 364	Jovian	Proclaimed emperor by the army after Julian ‘s death

 Valentinian
dynasty

Reign	Incumbent	Notes
26 February 364 to 17 November 375	Valentinian I Valentinian I Coins.htm	Proclaimed emperor by the army after Jovian ‘s death
28 March 365 to 9 August 378	Valens	Made co-emperor in the east by his brother Valentinian I ; killed in battle
September 365 to 27 May 366	Procopius	Usurper; Proclaimed himself emperor; defeated and executed by Valens
24 August 367 to 383	Gratian Gratian Coins.htm	Son of Valentinian I ; assassinated
375 to 392	Valentinian II Valentinian II Coins.htm	Son of Valentinian I ; deposed by Arbogast and died in suspicious circumstances
383 to 388	Magnus Maximus Magnus Maximus Coins.htm	Usurper; proclaimed emperor by troops; at one time recognized by Theodosius I , but then deposed and executed
c.386 to 388	Flavius Victor Flavius Victor Coins.htm	Son of Magnus Maximus, executed on orders of Theodosius I
392 to 394	Eugenius Eugenius Coins.htm	Usurper; proclaimed emperor by army under Arbogast ; defeated in battle by Theodosius I

 Theodosian
dynasty

Reign	Incumbent	Notes
379 to 17 January 395	Theodosius I Theodosius I Coins.htm	Made co-emperor for the east by Gratian
383 to 408 EAST	Arcadius Arcadius Coins.htm	Appointed co-emperor with his father Theodosius I ; sole emperor for the east from January 395
23 January 393 to 15 August 423 WEST	Honorius Honorius Coins.htm	Appointed Augustus for the west by his father Theodosius I
407 to 411 WEST	Constantine III Constantine III Coins.htm	Usurper; proclaimed emperor in Britain; defeated by Constantius III
409 to 411 WEST	Constans II Constans II Coins.htm	Usurper; made emperor by his father Constantine III ; killed in battle
409 and 414 to 415 WEST	Priscus Attalus Priscus Attalus Coins.htm	Usurper; twice proclaimed emperor by Visigoths under Alaric and twice deposed by Honorius
409 to 411 WEST	Maximus Maximus Coins.htm	Usurper; proclaimed emperor in Spain; abdicated
411 to 413 WEST	Jovinus Jovinus Coins.htm	Usurper; proclaimed emperor after Constantine III ‘s death, executed by Honorius
412 to 413 WEST	Sebastianus Sebastianus Coins.htm	Usurper; appointed co-emperor by Jovinus , executed by Honorius
408 to 450 EAST	Theodosius II Theodosius II Coins.htm	Son of Arcadius
421 to 421 WEST	Constantius III Constantius III Coins.htm	Son-in-law of Theodosius I ; appointed co-emperor by Honorius
423 to 425 WEST	Joannes Johannes Coins.htm	Proclaimed western emperor, initially undisputed; defeated and executed by Theodosius II in favour of Valentinian III
425 to 16 March 455 WEST	Valentinian III Valentinian III Coins.htm	Son of Constantius III ; appointed emperor by Theodosius II ; assassinated

 Western
Roman Empire

Reign	Incumbent	Notes
17 March 455 to 31 May 455	Petronius Maximus Petronius Maximus Coins.htm	Proclaimed himself emperor after Valentinian III ‘s death; murdered
June 455 to 17 October 456	Avitus Avitus Coins.htm	Proclaimed emperor by the Visigoth king Theoderic II ; deposed by Ricimer
457 to 2 August 461	Majorian Majorian Coins.htm	Appointed by Ricimer ; deposed and executed by Ricimer
461 to 465	Libius Severus Libius Severus Coins.htm	Appointed by Ricimer ; deposed and executed by Ricimer
12 April 467 to 11 July 472	Anthemius Anthemius Coins.htm	Appointed by Ricimer ; deposed and executed by Ricimer
July 472 to 2 November 472	Olybrius Olybrius Coins.htm	Appointed by Ricimer
5 March 473 to June 474	Glycerius Glycerius Coins.htm	Appointed by Gundobad ; deposed by Julius Nepos
June 474 to 25 April 480	Julius Nepos Julius Nepos Coins.htm	Appointed by eastern emperor Leo I ; deposed in Italy by Orestes in 475; continued to be recognised as lawful emperor in Gaul and Dalmatia until his murder in 480
31 October 475 to 4 September 476	Romulus Augustus (Romulus Augustulus) Romulus Augustus Coins.htm	Son of Orestes ; deposed by Odoacer ; fate unknown

Further information:
Barbarian kings of Italy

 Eastern
Roman Empire

• For
  the rulers of the Eastern Roman Empire (also known as the
  Byzantine Empire
  ) after
  Theodosius II
  , see:
  List of Byzantine Emperors
  

Theodosian dynasty (395–457)

See also:
Theodosian dynasty

Name		Reign	Comments
	Theodosius I “the Great” (Θεοδόσιος Α’ ο Μέγας, Flavius Theodosius)Theodosius I Coins.htm	19 January 379 – 17 January 395	Born on 11 January 347. Aristocrat and military leader, brother-in-law of Gratian, who appointed him as emperor of the East. From 392 until his death sole Roman emperor
	Arcadius (Αρκάδιος, Flavius Arcadius)Arcadius Coins.htm	17 January 395 – 1 May 408	Born in 377/378, the eldest son of Theodosius I. Succeeded upon the death of his father
	Theodosius II (Θεοδόσιος Β’, Flavius Theodosius) Theodosius II Coins.htm	1 May 408 – 28 July 450	Born on 10 April 401, the only son of Arcadius. Succeeded upon the death of his father. As a minor, the praetorian prefect Anthemius was regent in 408–414. He died in a riding accident
	Marcian (Μαρκιανός, Flavius Valerius Marcianus) Marcian Coins.htm	450 – January 457	Born in 396. A soldier and politician, he became emperor after being wed by the Augusta Pulcheria , Theodosius II’s sister, following the latter’s death. Died of gangrene

Leonid
dynasty (457–518)

See also:
House of Leo

Name		Reign	Comments
	Leo I “the Thracian” (Λέων Α’ ο Θράξ, Flavius Valerius Leo) Leo I Coins.htm	7 February 457 – 18 January 474	Born in Dacia in 401. A common soldier, he was chosen by Aspar , commander-in-chief of the army. Died of dysentery
	Leo II (Λέων Β’, Flavius Leo) Leo II Coins.htm	18 January – 17 November 474	Born in 467, the grandson of Leo I. Succeeded upon the death of Leo I. Died of an unknown disease, possibly poisoned
	Zeno (Ζήνων, Flavius Zeno) Zeno Coins.htm	17 November 474 – 9 April 491	Born c.425 at Zenonopolis , Isauria , originally named Tarasicodissa. Son-in-law of Leo I, he was bypassed in the succession because of his barbarian origin. Named co-emperor by his son on 9 February 474, he succeeded upon the death of Leo II. Deposed by Basiliscus, brother-in-law of Leo, he fled to his native country and regained the throne in August 476.
	Basiliscus (Βασιλίσκος, Flavius Basiliscus) Basiliscus Coins.htm	9 January 475 – August 476	General and brother-in-law of Leo I, he seized power from Zeno but was again deposed by him. Died in 476/477
	Anastasius I (Αναστάσιος Α’, Flavius Anastasius) BYZANTINE – Anastasius Coins.htm	11 April 491 – 9 July 518	Born c. 430 at Dyrrhachium , Epirus nova . A palace official (silentiarius) and son-in-law of Leo I, he was chosen as emperor by empress-dowager Ariadne

Justinian Dynasty

Main article:
Justinian Dynasty

Portrait	Name	Born	Reigned	Succession	Died
	Justin I FLAVIVS IVSTINVS AVGVSTVS	c. 450 AD, Naissus	July 9, 518 AD – August 1, 527 AD	Commander of the palace guard under Anastasius I) ; elected as emperor with support of army	August 1, 527 AD Natural causes
	Justinian I FLAVIVS PETRVS SABBATIVS IVSTINIANVS AVGVSTVS	c. 482 AD, Tauresium , Dardania	August 1, 527 AD – 13/14 November 565 AD	Nephew and nominated heir of Justin I	13/14 November 565 AD Natural causes
	Justin II FLAVIVS IVSTINIVS IVNIOR AVGVSTVS	c. 520 AD, ?	13/14 November 565 AD – 578 AD	Nephew of Justinian I	578 AD Became insane; Tiberius II Constantine ruled as regent from December 574 and became emperor on Justin’s death in 578

Roman Late Monogram Coins.htm

Roman AE4 Coins.htm

 See also

• 
  Roman Republic
  
• 
  Roman Empire
  
• 
  Western Roman Empire
  
• 
  Byzantine Empire
  
• 
  Britannic Empire
  
• 
  Gallic Empire
  
• 
  List of Roman usurpers
  
• 
  Roman usurper
  
• 
  Thirty Tyrants (Roman)
  

 

 

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