TITUS as Caesar 73AD GADARA of the DECAPOLIS Greek City Roman Coin Rare i52774

Item: i52774

Authentic Ancient

Coin of:

Titus –
Roman Emperor
: 79-81 A.D.

Titus
as Caesar: 70-79 A.D.

Bronze 16mm (2.22 grams) of Gadara in Decapolis Year 137=73/74 A.D.
Reference:  RPC 2096. BM 3. Spijkerman 30, pl. 27
TITOΣ KAI -ΣAP, Laureate head of Titus right.
ΓAΔA – PE – ΩN, Crossed cornucopias, between them a cruciform ornament with dots
in each corner, date L ZΛP above.

The cruciform ornament on reverse is also clear on
Spijkerman’s specimen and is described by him, but it cannot be seen on the BM
specimen illustrated in RPC, pl. 94, 2096, and is not mentioned in the RPC text.

You are bidding on the exact item pictured,

Authenticity.

Umm Qais or Qays (Arabic:
أم قيس‎,
lit. “Mother of Qais”) is a town in northern
Jordan
principally known for its proximity to
the ruins of the ancient Gadara. It lies in the
Bani Kinanah Department
and
Irbid Governorate
in the extreme northwest of
the country, near Jordan’s borders with
Israel
and
Syria
. It is perched on a hilltop 378 metres
(1,240 ft) above sea level overlooking the
Sea of Tiberias
, the
Golan Heights
, and the
Yarmouk River
gorge.

Gadara

 

Gadara (Hebrew:
גדרה‎, Gadʾara, or
גדר, Gader;
Greek
: Γάδαρα
Gádara) was situated in a defensible position on a ridge accessible to
the east but protected by steep falls on the other three sides. It was
well-watered, with access to the Ain Qais spring and cisterns.

A member of the
Decapolis
, Gadara was a center of
Greek
culture in the region, considered one of
its most
Hellenized
and enjoying special political and
religious status. By the third century BC the town was of some cultural
importance. It was the birthplace of the satirist
Menippos
, a slave who became a
Cynic
philosopher and satirised the follies of
mankind in a mixture of prose and verse. His works have not survived, but were
imitated by
Varro
and by
Lucian
. The Greek historian
Polybius
describes Gadara as being in 218 BC
the ‘strongest of all places in the region’. Nevertheless, it capitulated
shortly afterwards when besieged by the Seleucid king
Antiochus III
of Syria. Under the
Seleucids
, it was also known as Antiochia
or Antiochia Semiramis (Ἀντιόχεια
Σεμίραμις, Antiókheia Semíramis) and as Seleucia. The
region passed in and out of the control of the Seleucid kings of Syria and the
Ptolemies of Egypt. In 167 BC the Jews of Jerusalem rebelled against the
Seleucids, and in the ensuing conflict in the region Gadara and other cities
suffered severe damage. In the early first century BC Gadara gave birth to its
most famous son,
Meleager
. He was one of the most admired
Hellenistic Greek poets, not only for his own works but also for his anthology
of other poets, which formed the basis of the large collection known as the
Greek Anthology
. In 63 BC, when the Roman
general Pompey
placed the region under Roman control,
he rebuilt Gadara and made it one of the semi-autonomous cities of the Roman
Decapolis
,^{[citation
needed][dubious
–
discuss
]} and a bulwark against
Nabataean expansion. But in 30 BC Augustus placed it under the control of the
Jewish king Herod. The historian Josephus relates that after King Herod’s death
in 4 BC Gadara was made part of the Roman province of
Syria
.

In the first century,
Jesus
is said to have
driven demons out of a man
and into some swine
‘in the country of the Gadarenes’ or ‘country of the Gerasenes’, which has often
been associated with Gadara. A story set in the ‘territory of the Gadarenes’,
probably referring to the area around Gadara, appears in the
Gospel of Matthew
. It describes an encounter
between Jesus and two man ‘possessed by demons’; Jesus exorcises the demons,
driving them into a nearby herd of pigs, which then run “down the steep place
into the sea”, evidently intended to refer to the Sea of Galilee. In the
original version, in the earlier
Gospel of Mark
, the incident is set in ‘the
territory of the Gerasenes’, or
Gerasa
, around 50 km southeast of the Sea of
Galilee. The author of the Matthew Gospel appears to have moved the setting to
Gadara to make it more plausible. However it is still 10 km away, so
Origen
speculated that there had been a town
called ‘Gergasa’ on the shores of the sea.

 

Josephus relates that in AD 66 at the beginning of the
Jewish revolt
against the Romans the country
around Gadara was laid waste,:

“So Vespasian marched to the city of Gadara. He came into it and slew all
the youth, the Romans having no mercy on any age whatsoever. He set fire to
the city and all the villas around it.”

The Gadarenes captured some of the boldest of the Jews, of whom several were
put to death and others imprisoned. Some in the town surrendered to emperor
Vespasian
, who placed a garrison there. The 2nd
century AD Roman
aqueduct to Gadara
supplied drinking water
through a qanat
170 km long. Its longest underground
section, running for 94 km, is the longest known tunnel from
ancient times
. Gadara continued to be an
important town within the Eastern Roman Empire, and was long the seat of a
Christian bishop
. With the conquest of the Arabs,
following the
Battle of Yarmouk
in 636 it came under Muslim
rule. Around 747 it was largely destroyed by an earthquake, and was abandoned.

The ancient walls may now be traced in almost their entire circuit of 3 km.
One of the Roman roads ran eastward to Ḍer‛ah; and an aqueduct has been traced
to the pool of
Ḳhab
, about 20 miles to the north of Ḍer‛ah.
The ruins include those of “baths, two theaters, a
hippodrome
, colonnaded streets and, under the
Romans, aqueducts,” a
temple
, a
basilica
and other buildings, telling of a once
splendid city. A paved street, with double
colonnade
, ran from east to west. The ruts worn
in the paved road by the wheels of ancient vehicles are still to be seen.

Persons

 

Gadara was once called the ‘city of philosophers’. Among others, Gadara was
home to:

• Menippus of Gadara
  , the Cynic satirist
• Meleager of Gadara
  , the Cynic poet
• Oenomaus of Gadara
  , the Cynic philosopher
• Philodemus of Gadara
  , the Epicurean
  philosopher and poet
• Apsines of Gadara
  , the rhetorician
• Philo of Gadara, the mathematician
• Theodorus of Gadara, the orator

 

Tourism

 

Many visitors come to Umm Qais on day trips from the capital, Amman, roughly
110 kilometres (68 mi) to the south, to see its extensive ruins and enjoy its
panoramic views. The
Sea of Galilee
and
Tiberias
,
Israel
, are visible, and just across the valley
of the
Yarmouk River
is the southern end of the
Golan Heights
– claimed by and recognized as
Syria
, but under Israeli administration since
the Six-Day War
in 1967.
Mount Hermon
bordering
Lebanon
is visible in the distance on clear
days.

At Beit Rousan – formerly the house of the
Ottoman
governor and now part of the complex –
are exhibited Greek statues and Christian mosaics.

Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Titus (December 30, 39 –

September 13, 81), was a

Roman

Emperor
who briefly reigned from 79 until his death in 81. Titus was the

second emperor of the

Flavian dynasty

, which ruled the

Roman

Empire
between 69 and 96, encompassing the reigns of Titus’s father

Vespasian

(69–79), Titus himself (79–81) and his younger brother

Domitian

(81–96).

Prior to becoming emperor, Titus gained renown as a military commander,

serving under his father in

Judaea

during the

First Jewish-Roman War

, which was fought between 67 and 70. The campaign

came to a brief halt with the death of emperor

Nero on June 9, 68,

launching Vespasian’s bid for the imperial power during the

Year of the Four Emperors

. When Vespasian was declared emperor on July 1,

69, Titus was left in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion, which he did in 70,

successfully

besieging

and destroying the city and the

Temple

of Jerusalem

. For this achievement Titus was awarded a

triumph

; the

Arch

of Titus
commemorates his victory to this day.

Under the rule of his father, Titus gained infamy in Rome serving as

prefect

of the Roman imperial

bodyguard
,

known as the

Praetorian Guard

, and for carrying on a controversial relationship with the

Jewish queen

Berenice

. Despite concerns over his character, however, Titus ruled to great

acclaim following the death of Vespasian on June 23, 79, and was considered a

good emperor by

Suetonius

and other contemporary historians. In this role he is best known for his public

building program in Rome—completing the

Flavian Amphitheatre

, otherwise known as the Colosseum— and for his

generosity in relieving the suffering caused by two disasters, the

Mount Vesuvius eruption of 79

and the fire of Rome of 80. After barely two

years in office, Titus died of a

fever
on

September 13, 81. He was

deified

by the Roman Senate

and succeeded by his younger brother

Domitian
.

Early life

Titus was born in Rome

, probably on 30 December 39, as the eldest son of

Titus Flavius

Vespasianus
—commonly known as Vespasian—and

Domitilla the Elder

.

He had one younger sister,

Domitilla the Younger

(b. 45), and one younger brother, also named

Titus Flavius

Domitianus
(b. 51), but commonly referred to as Domitian.

Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the

demise of the old aristocracy of Rome, which was gradually replaced in

prominence by a new provincial nobility during the early part of the 1st

century.

One such family was the gens

Flavia
,

which rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations,

acquiring wealth and status under the emperors of the

Julio-Claudian dynasty

. Titus’s great-grandfather,

Titus Flavius Petro

, had served as a

centurion

under Pompey

during

Caesar’s civil war

. His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the

battlefield at the

Battle of Pharsalus

in 48 BC.

Nevertheless, Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely

wealthy Tertulla, whose fortune guaranteed the upwards mobility of Petro’s son

Titus Flavius Sabinus I

, Titus’s grandfather.

Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible

equestrian

status through his services as

tax

collector
in Asia and banker in

Helvetia
.

By marrying

Vespasia Polla

he allied himself to the more prestigious

patrician

gens Vespasia, ensuring the elevation of his sons

Titus Flavius Sabinus II

and

Vespasian

to the

senatorial

rank.

The

political career

of Vespasian included the offices of

quaestor
,

aedile
and

praetor
, and

culminated with a

consulship

in 51, the year Domitian was born. As a military commander, he

gained early renown by participating in the

Roman invasion of Britain

in 43.

What little is known of Titus’s early life has been handed down to us by

Suetonius
,

who records that he was brought up at the imperial court in the company of

Britannicus

,

the son of emperor

Claudius
,

who would be murdered by

Nero in 55. The

story was even told that Titus was reclining next to Britannicus, the night he

was murdered, and sipped of the

poison
that was

handed to him.

Further details on his education are scarce, but it seems he showed early

promise in the

military arts

and was a skilled poet and orator both in

Greek

and Latin
.

 Military

career

From c. 57 to 59 he was a military

tribune
in

Germania
.

He also served in

Britannia

, perhaps arriving c. 60 with reinforcements needed after

the revolt of Boudica

. In c. 63 he returned to Rome and married Arrecina Tertulla,

daughter of a former

Prefect of the Praetorian Guard

. She died c. 65.

Titus then took a new wife of a much more distinguished family,

Marcia Furnilla

. However, Marcia’s family was closely linked to the

opposition to Nero
.

Her uncle

Barea

Soranus
and his daughter

Servilia

were among those who perished after the failed

Pisonian conspiracy

of 65.

Some modern historians theorize that Titus divorced his wife because of her

family’s connection to the conspiracy.

He never re-married. Titus appears to have had multiple daughters,

at least one of them by Marcia Furnilla.

The only one known to have survived to adulthood was

Julia

Flavia
, perhaps Titus’s child by Arrecina, whose mother was also named

Julia.

During this period Titus also practiced law and attained the rank of

quaestor
.

 Judaean

campaigns

In 66 the Jews of the

Judaea Province

revolted against the Roman Empire

.

Cestius Gallus

, the

legate of Syria

, was defeated at

the battle of

Beth-Horon

and forced to retreat from

Jerusalem
.

The pro-Roman king

Agrippa II

and his sister

Berenice

fled the city to

Galilee
where

they later gave themselves up to the Romans. Nero appointed Vespasian to put

down the rebellion, who was dispatched to the region at once with the

fifth

and

tenth legions

.^[16]

He was later joined by Titus at

Ptolemais

, bringing with him the

fifteenth legion

.

With a strength of 60,000 professional soldiers, the Romans prepared to sweep

across Galilee and march on Jerusalem.

The history of the war was covered in dramatic detail by the Roman-Jewish

historian Josephus

in his work

. Josephus served as a commander in the city of

Jotapata

when the Roman army invaded Galilee in 67. After an exhausting

siege which lasted 47 days, the city fell, with an estimated 40,000 killed and

the remaining Jewish resistance committing

suicide
.

Josephus himself surrendered to Vespasian, became a prisoner and provided the

Romans with intelligence on the ongoing revolt.

By 68, the entire coast and the north of Judaea were subjugated by the Roman

army, with decisive victories won at

Taricheae
and

Gamala
, where

Titus distinguished himself as a skilled general.

 Year

of the Four Emperors

The last and most significant fortress of

Jewish

resistance
was Jerusalem. However the campaign came to a sudden halt when

news arrived of Nero’s death.

Almost simultaneously, the

Roman

Senate
had declared

Galba
, then

governor of Hispania

, as Emperor of Rome. Vespasian decided to await further orders, and

sent Titus to greet the new

princeps
.

Before reaching Italy, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by

Otho, governor of

Lusitania
,

and that Vitellius

and his armies in

Germania

were preparing to march on the capital, intent on overthrowing Otho. Not wanting

to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other, he abandoned the journey

to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea.

Meanwhile, Otho was defeated in the

First Battle of Bedriacum

and committed suicide.

When the news spread across the armies in Judaea and

Ægyptus

, they took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian

emperor on July 1, 69.

Vespasian accepted, and through negotiations by Titus joined forces with

Gaius Licinius

Mucianus
, governor of Syria.

A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under

the command of Mucianus, while Vespasian himself travelled to

Alexandria
,

leaving Titus in charge to end the Jewish rebellion.

By the end of 69 the forces of Vitellius had been beaten, and Vespasian was

officially declared emperor by the Senate on December 21, thus ending the

Year of the Four Emperors

.

 Siege

of Jerusalem

Meanwhile the Jews had become embroiled in a

civil

conflict
of their own, splitting the resistance in the city among two

factions; the Sicarii

led by

Simon Bar Giora

, and the

Zealots

led by

John of Gischala

.^[30]

Titus seized the opportunity to begin the

assault on Jerusalem

. The Roman army was joined by the

twelfth legion

, which was previously defeated under

Cestius Gallus

, and from Alexandria Vespasian sent

Tiberius Julius Alexander

, governor of Ægyptus, to act as Titus’s second in

command.

Titus surrounded the city, with three legions (Vth, XIIth and XVth) on the

western side and one (Xth) on the

Mount of Olives

to the east. He put pressure on the food and water supplies

of the inhabitants by allowing

pilgrims
to

enter the city to celebrate

Passover
,

and then refusing them egress. Jewish raids continuously harassed the Roman

army, one of which nearly resulted in Titus being captured.

After attempts by Josephus to negotiate a surrender had failed, the Romans

resumed hostilities and quickly breached the first and second walls of the city.

To intimidate the resistance, Titus ordered

deserters

from the Jewish side to be

crucified

around the city wall.

By this time the Jews had been thoroughly exhausted by

famine
, and

when the weak third wall was breached bitter street fighting ensued.

The Romans finally captured the

Antonia Fortress

and began a frontal assault on the gates of

the Temple

.

According to Josephus, Titus had ordered that the Temple itself should not be

destroyed,

but while the fighting around the gates continued a soldier hurled a torch

inside one of the windows, which quickly set the entire building ablaze.

The later Christian chronicler

Sulpicius Severus

, possibly drawing on a lost portion of

Tacitus
‘

, claims that Titus favoured destruction of the Temple.

Whatever the case, the Temple was completely demolished, after which Titus’s

soldiers proclaimed him

imperator

in honor of the victory.

Jerusalem was sacked

and much of the population killed or dispersed.

Josephus claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, of which a

majority were Jewish.

97,000 were captured and enslaved, including Simon Bar Giora and John of

Gischala.

Many fled to areas around the

Mediterranean

. Titus reportedly refused to accept a

wreath
of

victory, as he claimed there is “no merit in vanquishing people forsaken by

their own God”.

 Heir

to Vespasian

Unable to sail to Italy during the winter, Titus celebrated elaborate games

at

Caesarea Maritima

and

Berytus

, then travelled to

Zeugma

on the

Euphrates
,

where he was presented with a crown by

Vologases I of Parthia

. While visiting

Antioch
he

confirmed the traditional rights of the Jews in that city.

On his way to

Alexandria
,

he stopped in

Memphis

to consecrate the sacred bull

Apis

. According to

Suetonius
,

this caused consternation; the ceremony required Titus to wear a

diadem

, which the Romans associated with

kingship
, and

the partisanship of Titus’s legions had already led to fears that he might rebel

against his father. Titus returned quickly to Rome – hoping, says Suetonius, to

allay any suspicions about his conduct.

Upon his arrival in the city in 71, Titus was awarded a

triumph

.

Accompanied by Vespasian and Domitian he rode into the city, enthusiastically

saluted by the Roman populace and preceded by a lavish parade containing

treasures and captives from the war. Josephus describes a procession with large

amounts of gold and silver carried along the route, followed by elaborate

re-enactments of the war, Jewish prisoners, and finally the treasures taken from

the Temple of Jerusalem, including the

Menorah

and the

Pentateuch

.

Simon Bar Giora was executed in the

Forum

, after which the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the

Temple of Jupiter

.

The triumphal

Arch

of Titus
, which stands at one entrance to the Forum, memorializes the

victory of Titus.

With Vespasian declared emperor, Titus and his brother Domitian likewise

received the title of Caesar from the Senate.

In addition to sharing

tribunician power

with his father, Titus held seven

consulships

during Vespasian’s reign

and acted as his secretary, appearing in the Senate on his behalf.

More crucially, he was appointed

commander of the Praetorian Guard

, ensuring their loyalty to the emperor and

further solidifying Vespasian’s position as a legitimate ruler.

In this capacity he achieved considerable notoriety in Rome for his violent

actions, frequently ordering the execution of suspected

traitors

on the spot.

When in 79, a plot by

Aulus Caecina Alienus

and Eprius Marcellus to overthrow Vespasian was

uncovered, Titus invited Alienus to dinner and ordered him to be stabbed before

he had even left the room.

During the Jewish wars, Titus had begun a love affair with

Berenice

, sister of

Agrippa II
.

The

Herodians

had collaborated with the Romans during the rebellion, and

Berenice herself had supported Vespasian upon his campaign to become emperor.

In 75, she returned to Titus and openly lived with him in the palace as his

promised wife. The Romans were wary of the Eastern Queen and disapproved of

their relationship. When the pair was publicly denounced by

Cynics
in the

theatre, Titus caved in to the pressure and sent her away,

but his reputation further suffered.

 Emperor

 Succession

Vespasian died of an infection on June 23 79 AD,

and was immediately succeeded by his son Titus.

Because of his many alleged

vices, many Romans

feared at this point that he would be another Nero.

Against these expectations, however, Titus proved to be an effective emperor and

was well-loved by the population, who praised him highly when they found that he

possessed the greatest

virtues
instead

of vices.

One of his first acts as an emperor was to publicly order a halt to trials based

on treason charges,

which had long plagued the

principate
.

The law of treason

, or

lawmaiestas

, was originally intended to prosecute those who had

corruptly ‘impaired the people and majesty of Rome’ by any

revolutionary

action.

Under Augustus
,

however, this custom had been revived and applied to cover

slander or libellous writings

as well,

eventually leading to a long cycle of

trials

and executions under such emperors as

Tiberius
,

Caligula

and Nero, spawning entire

networks of

informers
that terrorized Rome’s political system for decades.

Titus put an end to this practice, against himself or anyone else, declaring:

“It is impossible for me to be insulted or abused in any way. For I do

naught that deserves censure, and I care not for what is reported falsely.

As for the emperors who are dead and gone, they will avenge themselves in

case anyone does them a wrong, if in very truth they are demigods and

possess any power.”

Consequently, no

senators

were put to death during his reign;

he thus kept to his promise that he would assume the office of

Pontifex Maximus

“for the purpose of keeping his hands

unstained

“.

The informants were publicly punished and

banished
from the

city, and Titus further prevented abuses by introducing legislation that made it

unlawful for persons to be

tried under different laws for the same offense

.

Finally, when Berenice returned to Rome, he sent her away.

As emperor he became known for his generosity, and

Suetonius

states that upon realising he had brought no benefit to anyone during a whole

day he remarked, “Friends, I have lost a day.”

 Challenges

Although his administration was marked by a relative absence of major

military or political conflicts, Titus faced a number of major disasters during

his brief reign. On August 24, 79, barely two months after his accession,

Mount Vesuvius erupted

,

resulting in the almost complete destruction of life and property in the cities

and resort communities around the

Bay of Naples

. The cities of

Pompeii
and

Herculaneum

were buried under metres of stone and

lava,

killing thousands of citizens.

Titus appointed two ex-consuls to organise and coordinate the

relief effort

, while personally donating large amounts of money from the

imperial treasury to aid the victims of the volcano.

Additionally, he visited Pompeii once after the eruption and again the following

year.

During the second visit, in spring of AD 80, a fire broke out in Rome,

burning large parts of the city for three days and three nights.

Although the extent of the damage was not as disastrous as during the

Great Fire

of 64—crucially sparing the many districts of

insulae

—Cassius

Dio records a long list of important public buildings that were destroyed,

including Agrippa’s Pantheon

, the

Temple of Jupiter

, the

Diribitorium

, parts of

Pompey’s Theatre

and the

Saepta

Julia
among others.

Once again, Titus personally compensated for the damaged regions.

According to Suetonius, a

plague

similarly struck during the fire.

The nature of the disease, however, or the

death toll

are unknown.

Meanwhile war had resumed in

Britannia

, where

Gnaeus Julius Agricola

pushed further into

Caledonia

and managed to establish several forts there.

As a result of his actions, Titus received the title of

Imperator

for the fifteenth time.

His reign also saw the rebellion led by

Terentius Maximus

, one of several false Neros who continued to appear

throughout the 70s.

Although Nero was primarily known as a universally hated

tyrant
—there is

evidence that for much of his reign, he remained highly popular in the eastern

provinces. Reports that Nero had in fact survived the assassination attempts

were fueled by the vague circumstances surrounding his death and several

prophecies

foretelling his return.

According to Cassius Dio, Terentius Maximus resembled Nero in voice and

appearance and, like him, sang to the

lyre.

Terentius established a following in

Asia minor

but was soon forced to flee beyond the

Euphrates
,

taking refuge with the

Parthians

.

In addition, sources state that Titus discovered that his brother Domitian was

plotting against him but refused to have him killed or banished.

 Public

works

Construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, presently better known as the

Colosseum
,

was begun in 70 under

Vespasian

and finally completed in 80 under Titus.

In addition to providing spectacular entertainments to the Roman populace, the

building was also conceived as a gigantic triumphal monument to commemorate the

military achievements of the Flavians during the

Jewish wars

.

The

inaugural games

lasted for a hundred days and were said to be extremely

elaborate, including

gladiatorial

combat
, fights between wild animals (elephants

and cranes

), mock

naval

battles
for which the theatre was flooded,

horse races

and

chariot races

.

During the games, wooden balls were dropped into the audience, inscribed with

various prizes (clothing,

gold, or even

slaves

), which could then be traded for the designated item.

Adjacent to the amphitheatre, within the precinct of Nero’s

Golden

House
, Titus had also ordered the construction of a new public

bath-house
,

which was to

bear his name

.

Construction of this building was hastily finished to coincide with the

completion of the Flavian Amphitheatre.

Practice of the

imperial cult

was revived by Titus, though apparently it met with some

difficulty as Vespasian was not deified until six months after his death.

To further honor and glorify the

Flavian dynasty

, foundations were laid for what would later become the

Temple of Vespasian and Titus

, which was finished by Domitian.

 Death

At the closing of the games, Titus officially dedicated the amphitheatre and

the baths, which was to be his final recorded act as an emperor.

He set out for the Sabine

territories but fell ill at the first posting station

where he died of a fever

, reportedly in the same farm-house as his father.

Allegedly, the last words he uttered before passing away were: “I have made but

one mistake”.

Titus had ruled the

Roman

Empire
for just over two years, from the death of his father in 79 to his

own on September 13 81.

He was succeeded by Domitian, whose first act as emperor was to

deify

his brother.

Historians

have speculated on the exact nature of his death, and to which

mistake Titus alluded in his final words.

Philostratus

writes that he was poisoned by Domitian with a

sea hare

, and that his death had been foretold to him by

Apollonius of Tyana

.

Suetonius and Cassius Dio maintain he died of natural causes, but both accuse

Domitian of having left the ailing Titus for dead.

Consequently, Dio believes Titus’s mistake refers to his failure to have his

brother executed when he was found to be openly plotting against him.

According to the

Babylonian Talmud

(Gittin

56b), an insect

flew into Titus’s nose and picked at his brain for seven years. He noticed that

the sound of a blacksmith hammering caused the ensuing pain to abate, so he paid

for blacksmiths to hammer nearby him; however, the effect wore off and the

insect resumed its gnawing. When he died, they opened his skull and found the

insect had grown to the size of a bird. The Talmud gives this as the cause of

his death and interprets it as divine retribution for his wicked actions.

 Legacy

 Historiography

Titus’s record among ancient historians stands as one of the most exemplary

of any emperor. All the surviving accounts from this period, many of them

written by his own contemporaries, present a highly favourable view towards

Titus. His character has especially prospered in comparison with that of his

brother Domitian.

offers a first-hand,

eye-witness

account on the Jewish rebellion and the character of Titus. The

neutrality

of

Josephus
‘

writings has come into question however as he was heavily indebted to the

Flavians

. In 71, he arrived in Rome in the entourage of Titus, became a

Roman citizen

and took on the Roman

nomen
Flavius and

praenomen

Titus from his patrons. He received an annual pension and lived in the palace.

It was while in Rome, and under Flavian

patronage
,

that Josephus wrote all of his known works. The War of the Jews is

heavily slanted against the leaders of the revolt, portraying the rebellion as

weak and unorganized, and even blaming the Jews for causing the war.

The credibility of Josephus as a historian has subsequently come under fire.

Another contemporary of Titus was

Publius Cornelius

Tacitus
, who started his public career in 80 or 81 and credits the Flavian

dynasty with his elevation.

—his account of this period—was published during the reign

of Trajan
.

Unfortunately only the first five books from this work have survived until the

present day, with the text on Titus’s and Domitian’s reign entirely lost.

Suetonius

Tranquilius
gives a short but highly favourable account on Titus’s reign in

,

emphasizing his military achievements and his generosity as Emperor, in short

describing him as follows:

Titus, of the same surname as his father, was the delight and darling of

the human race; such surpassing ability had he, by nature, art, or good

fortune, to win the affections of all men, and that, too, which is no easy

task, while he was emperor.

Finally,

Cassius

Dio
wrote his

over a hundred years after the death of Titus. He shares a

similar outlook as Suetonius, possibly even using the latter as a source, but is

more reserved, noting:

His satisfactory record may also have been due to the fact that he

survived his accession but a very short time, for he was thus given no

opportunity for wrongdoing. For he lived after this only two years, two

months and twenty days — in addition to the thirty-nine years, five months

and twenty-five days he had already lived at that time. In this respect,

indeed, he is regarded as having equalled the long reign of

Augustus
,

since it is maintained that Augustus would never have been loved had he

lived a shorter time, nor Titus had he lived longer. For Augustus, though at

the outset he showed himself rather harsh because of the wars and the

factional strife, was later able, in the course of time, to achieve a

brilliant reputation for his kindly deeds; Titus, on the other hand, ruled

with mildness and died at the height of his glory, whereas, if he had lived

a long time, it might have been shown that he owes his present fame more to

good fortune than to merit.

Pliny the Elder

, who later died during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius,

dedicated his

to Titus.

In contrast to the ideal portrayal of Titus in Roman histories, in Jewish

memory “Titus the Wicked” is remembered as an evil oppressor and destroyer of

the Temple. For example, one legend in the Babylonian Talmud describes Titus as

having had sex with a whore on a Torah scroll inside the Temple during its

destruction.

 Titus

in later arts

The war in Judaea and the life of Titus, particularly his relationship with

Berenice, have inspired writers and artists through the centuries. The

bas-relief

in the Arch of Titus has been influential in the depiction of the

destruction of Jerusalem

, with the

Menorah

frequently being used to symbolise the looting of the

Second Temple

.

 Literature

• Bérénice

  , a play by

  Jean

  Racine
  (1670) which focuses on the love affair between Titus and

  Berenice.

• Tite et Bérénice

  , a play by

  Pierre Corneille

  which was in competition with Racine the same year, and

  concerns the same subject matter.

• La clemenza di Tito

  , an

  opera
  by

  Mozart

  , about a fictional romance between Emperor Titus and Vitellia,

  daughter of

  Vitellius
  .

• The Josephus Trilogy, novels by

  Lion Feuchtwanger

  , about the life of

  Flavius

  Josephus
  and his relation with the Flavian dynasty.

  • Der jüdische Krieg (Josephus), 1932

  • Die Söhne (The Jews of Rome), 1935

  • Der Tag wird kommen (The day will come, Josephus

    and the Emperor), 1942

• The

  Marcus Didius Falco

  novels, which take place during the reign of

  Vespasian.

• The Roman Mysteries

  , a series of children’s books which take place

  during the reign of Titus.

• The High School

  Latin

  textbook series

  Ecce

  Romani
  takes place during the reign of Titus.

 Paintings

• The Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus

  by

  Wilhelm von Kaulbach

  (1846). Oil on canvas, 585 x 705 cm. Neue

  Pinakothek, Munichh

  . An allegorical depiction of the

  destruction of Jerusalem

  , dramatically centered around the figure of

  Titus.

• The Destruction of the Temple at Jerusalem

  Nicolas Poussin (1637). Oil on canvas, 147 x 198,5 cm. Kunsthistorisches

  Museum, Vienna. Depicts the destruction and looting of the Second Temple by

  the Roman army led by Titus.

• The Destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem

  by

  Francesco Hayez

  (1867). Oil on canvas, 183 x 252 cm. Galleria d’Arte

  Moderna, Venice
  .

  Depicts the destruction and looting of the Second Temple by the Roman army.

• The Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans Under the Command of

  Titus, A.D. 70

  by

  David Roberts

  (1850). Oil on canvas, 136 x 197 cm. Private collection.

  Depicts the burning and looting of Jerusalem by the Roman army under Titus.

• The Triumph of Titus and Vespasian

  by

  Giulio Romano

  (1540). Oil on wood, 170 x 120 cm.

  Louvre
  ,

  Paris
  .

  Depicts Titus and Vespasian as they ride into Rome on a triumphal chariot,

  preceded by a parade carrying spoils from the war in Judaea. The painting

  anachronistically

  features the Arch of Titus, which was not completed

  until the reign of Domitian.

• The Triumph of Titus

  by

  Lawrence Alma-Tadema

  (1885). Oil on canvas. Private collection. This

  painting depicts the triumphal procession of Titus and his family. Alma-Tadema

  was known for his meticulous historical research on the ancient world.

  Vespasian, dressed as

  Pontifex Maximus

  , walks at the head of his family, followed by Domitian

  and his first wife

  Domitia Longina

  , who he had only recently married. Behind Domitian

  follows Titus, dressed in religious regalia. An exchange of glances between

  Titus and Domitia suggests an affair which historians have speculated upon.