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Alexander III the Great – King of Macedonia 336-323 B.C.
Bronze 16mm (4.22 grams) Pella or Amphipolis: 334 B.C. LIFETIME ISSUE!
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in centre, thunderbolt.
B – A on either side of Crested Macedonian helmet.
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Alexander III of Macedon (20/21 July 356 – 10/11 June 323 BC),
commonly known as Alexander the Great from the Greek alexo “to
defend, help” + aner “man”), was a king of
Macedon
, a state in northern
ancient Greece
. Born in
Pella
in 356 BC, Alexander was tutored by
Aristotle
until the age of 16. By the age of
thirty, he had created one of the
largest empires
of the
ancient world
, stretching from the
Ionian Sea
to the
Himalayas
.He was undefeated in battle and is
considered one of history’s most successful commanders.
Alexander
succeeded his father,
Philip II of Macedon
, to the throne in 336 BC
after Philip was assassinated. Upon Philip’s death, Alexander inherited a strong
kingdom and an experienced army. He was awarded the generalship of Greece and
used this authority to launch his father’s military expansion plans. In 334 BC,
he invaded
Persian
-ruled
Asia Minor
and began a
series of campaigns
that lasted ten years.
Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of decisive battles, most
notably the battles of
Issus
and
Gaugamela
. He subsequently overthrew the
Persian King
Darius III
and conquered the entirety of the
Persian Empire
. At that point, his empire
stretched from the
Adriatic Sea
to the
Indus River
.
Seeking to reach the “ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea”, he
invaded India
in 326 BC, but was eventually
forced to turn back at the demand of his troops. Alexander died in
Babylon
in 323 BC, without executing a series
of planned campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of
Arabia
. In the years following his death, a
series of civil wars tore his empire apart, resulting in several states ruled by
the Diadochi
, Alexander’s surviving generals and
heirs.
Alexander’s legacy includes the
cultural diffusion
his conquests engendered. He
founded some
twenty cities that bore his name
, most notably
Alexandria
in Egypt. Alexander’s settlement of
Greek colonists and the resulting spread of Greek culture in the east resulted
in a new
Hellenistic civilization
, aspects of which were
still evident in the traditions of the
Byzantine Empire
in the mid-15th century.
Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mold of
Achilles
, and he features prominently in the
history and myth of Greek and non-Greek cultures. He became the measure against
which military leaders compared themselves, and
military academies
throughout the world still
teach his tactics.
Early life
Lineage and childhood
Alexander was born on the 6th day of the ancient Greek month of
Hekatombaion
, in
Pella
, the capital of the
Ancient Greek
Kingdom of Macedon
.He was the son of the king
of Macedon,
Philip II
, and his fourth wife,
Olympias
, the daughter of
Neoptolemus I
, king of
Epirus
. Although Philip had seven or eight
wives, Olympias was his principal wife for some time, likely a result of giving
birth to Alexander.
Philip II
of Macedon
, Alexander’s father.
On the day that Alexander was born, Philip was preparing a
siege
on the city of
Potidea
on the peninsula of
Chalcidice
. That same day, Philip received news
that his general
Parmenion
had defeated the combined
Illyrian
and
Paeonian
armies, and that his horses had won at
the
Olympic Games
. It was also said that on this
day, the
Temple of Artemis
in
Ephesus
, one of the
Seven Wonders of the World
, burnt down. This
led
Hegesias of Magnesia
to say that it had burnt
down because Artemis
was away, attending the birth of
Alexander.
Bust of a young Alexander the Great from the Hellenistic era,
British
Museum
In his early years, Alexander was raised by a nurse,
Lanike
, sister of Alexander’s future general
Cleitus the Black
. Later in his childhood,
Alexander was tutored by the strict
Leonidas
, a relative of his mother, and by
Philip’s general
Lysimachus
. Alexander was raised in the manner
of noble Macedonian youths, learning to read, play the
lyre, ride, fight, and hunt.
When Alexander was ten years old, a trader from
Thessaly
brought Philip a horse, which he
offered to sell for thirteen
talents
. The horse refused to be mounted and
Philip ordered it away. Alexander however, detecting the horse’s fear of its own
shadow, asked to tame the horse, which he eventually managed. Philip, overjoyed
at this display of courage and ambition, kissed his son tearfully, declaring:
“My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too
small for you”, and bought the horse for him.Alexander named it
Bucephalas
, meaning “ox-head”. Bucephalas
carried Alexander as far as
Pakistan
. When the animal died at age thirty,
Alexander named a city after him,
Bucephala
.
When Alexander was 13, Philip began to search for a
tutor
, chose
Aristotle
and provided the Temple of the Nymphs
at Mieza
as a classroom. In return for teaching
Alexander, Philip agreed to rebuild Aristotle’s hometown of
Stageira
, which Philip had razed, and to
repopulate it by buying and freeing the ex-citizens who were slaves, or
pardoning those who were in exile.
Mieza was like a boarding school for Alexander and the children of Macedonian
nobles, such as
Ptolemy
,
Hephaistion
, and
Cassander
. Many of these students would become
his friends and future generals, and are often known as the ‘Companions’.
Aristotle taught Alexander and his companions about medicine, philosophy,
morals, religion, logic, and art. Under Aristotle’s tutelage, Alexander
developed a passion for the works of
Homer
, and in particular the
Iliad
; Aristotle gave him an annotated
copy, which Alexander later carried on his campaigns.
At age 16, Alexander’s education under Aristotle ended. Philip waged war
against Byzantion
, leaving Alexander in charge as
regent
and
heir apparent
. During Philip’s absence, the
Thracian
Maedi
revolted against Macedonia. Alexander
responded quickly, driving them from their territory. He colonized it with
Greeks, and founded a city named
Alexandropolis
.
Upon Philip’s return, he dispatched Alexander with a small force to subdue
revolts in southern Thrace
. Campaigning against the Greek city of
Perinthus
, Alexander is reported to have saved
his father’s life. Meanwhile, the city of
Amphissa
began to work lands that were sacred
to Apollo
near
Delphi
, a sacrilege that gave Philip the
opportunity to further intervene in Greek affairs. Still occupied in Thrace, he
ordered Alexander to muster an army for a campaign in Greece. Concerned that
other Greek states might intervene, Alexander made it look as though he was
preparing to attack Illyria instead. During this turmoil, the Illyrians invaded
Macedonia, only to be repelled by Alexander.
Philip and his army joined his son in 338 BC, and they marched south through
Thermopylae
, taking it after stubborn
resistance from its Theban garrison. They went on to occupy the city of
Elatea
, only a few days’ march from both Athens
and Thebes. The Athenians, led by
Demosthenes
, voted to seek alliance with Thebes
against Macedonia. Both Athens and Philip sent embassies to win Thebes’ favor,
but Athens won the contest.Philip marched on Amphissa (ostensibly acting on the
request of the
Amphictyonic League
), capturing the mercenaries
sent there by
Demosthenes
and accepting the city’s surrender.
Philip then returned to Elatea, sending a final offer of peace to Athens and
Thebes, who both rejected it.
As Philip marched south, his opponents blocked him near
Chaeronea
,
Boeotia
. During the ensuing
Battle of Chaeronea
, Philip commanded the right
wing and Alexander the left, accompanied by a group of Philip’s trusted
generals. According to the ancient sources, the two sides fought bitterly for
some time. Philip deliberately commanded his troops to retreat, counting on the
untested Athenian
hoplites
to follow, thus breaking their line.
Alexander was the first to break the Theban lines, followed by Philip’s
generals. Having damaged the enemy’s cohesion, Philip ordered his troops to
press forward and quickly routed them. With the Athenians lost, the Thebans were
surrounded. Left to fight alone, they were defeated.
After the victory at Chaeronea, Philip and Alexander marched unopposed into
the Peloponnese, welcomed by all cities; however, when they reached
Sparta
, they were refused, but did not resort
to war.At
Corinth
, Philip established a “Hellenic
Alliance” (modeled on the old
anti-Persian alliance
of the
Greco-Persian Wars
), which included most Greek
city-states except Sparta. Philip was then named
Hegemon
(often translated as “Supreme
Commander”) of this league (known by modern scholars as the
League of Corinth
), and announced his plans to
attack the
Persian Empire
.
When Philip returned to Pella, he fell in love with and married
Cleopatra Eurydice
, the niece of his general
Attalus
. The marriage made Alexander’s position
as heir less secure, since any son of Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully
Macedonian heir, while Alexander was only half-Macedonian.
Alexander fled Macedon with his mother, dropping her off with her brother,
King
Alexander I of Epirus
in
Dodona
, capital of the
Molossians
.He continued to Illyria, where he
sought refuge with the Illyrian King and was treated as a guest, despite having
defeated them in battle a few years before. However, it appears Philip never
intended to disown his politically and militarily trained son. Accordingly,
Alexander returned to Macedon after six months due to the efforts of a family
friend,
Demaratus
, who mediated between the two
parties.
In 336 BC, while at
Aegae
attending the wedding of his daughter
Cleopatra
to Olympias’s brother,
Alexander I of Epirus
, Philip was assassinated
by the captain of his
bodyguards
,
Pausanias
. As Pausanias tried to escape, he
tripped over a vine and was killed by his pursuers, including two of Alexander’s
companions, Perdiccas
and
Leonnatus
. Alexander was proclaimed king by the
nobles and
army
at the age of 20.
Alexander began his reign by eliminating potential rivals to the throne. He
had his cousin, the former
Amyntas IV
, executed. He also had two
Macedonian princes from the region of
Lyncestis
killed, but spared a third,
Alexander Lyncestes
. Olympias had Cleopatra
Eurydice and Europa, her daughter by Philip, burned alive. When Alexander
learned about this, he was furious. Alexander also ordered the murder of
Attalus, who was in command of the advance guard of the army in Asia Minor and
Cleopatra’s uncle.
News of Philip’s death roused many states into revolt, including Thebes,
Athens, Thessaly, and the Thracian tribes north of Macedon. When news of the
revolts reached Alexander, he responded quickly. Though advised to use
diplomacy, Alexander mustered the Macedonian cavalry of 3,000 and rode south
towards Thessaly. He found the Thessalian army occupying the pass between
Mount Olympus
and
Mount Ossa
, and ordered his men to ride over
Mount Ossa. When the Thessalians awoke the next day, they found Alexander in
their rear and promptly surrendered, adding their cavalry to Alexander’s force.
He then continued south towards the
Peloponnese
.
Alexander stopped at Thermopylae, where he was recognized as the leader of
the Amphictyonic League before heading south to
Corinth
. Athens sued for peace and Alexander
pardoned the rebels. The famous
encounter between Alexander and Diogenes the Cynic
occurred during Alexander’s stay in Corinth. When Alexander asked Diogenes what
he could do for him, the philosopher disdainfully asked Alexander to stand a
little to the side, as he was blocking the sunlight. This reply apparently
delighted Alexander, who is reported to have said “But verily, if I were not
Alexander, I would like to be Diogenes.” At Corinth Alexander took the title of
Hegemon (“leader”), and like Philip, was appointed commander for the
coming war against Persia. He also received news of a Thracian uprising.
Alexander’s army crossed the
Hellespont
in 334 BC with approximately 48,100
soldiers, 6,100 cavalry and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering
38,000,drawn from Macedon and various Greek city-states, mercenaries, and
feudally raised soldiers from
Thrace
,
Paionia
, and
Illyria
. He showed his intent to conquer the
entirety of the Persian Empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying he
accepted Asia as a gift from the gods. This also showed Alexander’s eagerness to
fight, in contrast to his father’s preference for diplomacy.
After an initial victory against Persian forces at the
Battle of the Granicus
, Alexander accepted the
surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of
Sardis
; he then proceeded along the
Ionian
coast. Though Alexander believed in his
divine right to expend the lives of men in battle, he did experience sorrow, as
those who died were rewarded generously. He did not directly influence the
culture of the Persians they did not feel the need to begin a rebellion as their
men and rulers were treated with proper respect.
The Levant and Syria
Alexander journeyed south but was met by Darius’ significantly larger army
which he easily defeated, causing Darius to panic. Although he was chased by
some troops ‘Alexander treated them (his family) with the respect out of
consideration’ which demonstrated his continued generosity and kindness towards
those he conquered.Darius fled the battle, causing his army to collapse, and
left behind his wife, his two daughters, his mother
Sisygambis
, and a fabulous treasure.He offered
a peace treaty
that included the lands he had
already lost, and a ransom of 10,000
talents
for his family. Alexander replied that
since he was now king of Asia, it was he alone who decided territorial
divisions.
Alexander proceeded to take possession of
Syria
, and most of the coast of the
Levant
. In the following year, 332 BC, he was
forced to attack
Tyre
, which he captured after a long and
difficult
siege
.Alexander massacred the men of military
age and sold the women and children into
slavery
.
Egypt
When Alexander destroyed Tyre, most of the towns on the route to Egypt
quickly capitulated, with the exception of
Gaza. The stronghold at Gaza was heavily fortified and built on a
hill, requiring a siege. Alexander came upon the city only to be met with a
surprising resistance and fortification. When ‘his engineers pointed out to him
that because of the height of the mound it would be impossible… this encouraged
Alexander all the more to make the attempt’ . The divine right that Alexander
believed he had gave him confidence of a miracle occurring. After three
unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold fell, but not before Alexander had
received a serious shoulder wound. As in Tyre, men of military age were put to
the sword and the women and children sold into slavery.
Jerusalem instead opened its gates in surrender, and according to
Josephus
, Alexander was shown the
Book of Daniel
‘s prophecy, presumably chapter
8, which described a mighty Greek king who would conquer the Persian Empire. He
spared Jerusalem and pushed south into Egypt.
Alexander advanced on Egypt in later 332 BC, where he was regarded as a
liberator. He was pronounced the new “master of the Universe” and son of the
deity of Amun
at the
Oracle
of
Siwa Oasis
in the
Libyan
desert.Henceforth, Alexander often
referred to
Zeus-Ammon
as his true father, and subsequent
currency depicted him adorned with rams horn as a symbol of his divinity. During
his stay in Egypt, he founded
Alexandria-by-Egypt
, which would become the
prosperous capital of the
Ptolemaic Kingdom
after his death.
Bust of
Alexander
the Great
as Helios (Musei
Capitolini)
Assyria and Babylonia
Leaving Egypt in 331 BC, Alexander marched eastward into
Mesopotamia
(now northern
Iraq) and again defeated Darius, at the
Battle of Gaugamela
. Darius once more fled the
field, and Alexander chased him as far as
Arbela
. Gaugamela would be the final and
decisive encounter between the two. Darius fled over the mountains to
Ecbatana
(modern
Hamedan
), while Alexander captured
Babylon
.
Persia
From Babylon, Alexander went to
Susa, one of the
Achaemenid
capitals, and captured its legendary
treasury. He sent the bulk of his army to the Persian ceremonial capital of
Persepolis
via the
Royal Road
. Alexander himself took selected
troops on the direct route to the city. He had to storm the pass of the
Persian Gates
(in the modern
Zagros Mountains
) which had been blocked by a
Persian army under
Ariobarzanes
and then hurried to Persepolis
before its garrison could loot the treasury.
Alexander fighting the Persian king
Darius III
.
From
Alexander Mosaic
,
Naples National
Archaeological Museum
On entering Persepolis, Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for
several days.Alexander stayed in Persepolis for five months. During his stay a
fire broke out in the eastern palace of
Xerxes
and spread to the rest of the city.
Possible causes include a drunken accident or deliberate revenge for the burning
of the
Acropolis of Athens
during the
Second Persian War
.
Fall of the
Empire and the East
Alexander then chased Darius, first into Media, and then Parthia.The Persian
king no longer controlled his own destiny, and was taken prisoner by
Bessus
, his
Bactrian
satrap and kinsman.As Alexander
approached, Bessus had his men fatally stab the Great King and then declared
himself Darius’ successor as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia
to launch a
guerrilla
campaign against Alexander. Alexander
buried Darius’ remains next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a regal funeral.He
claimed that, while dying, Darius had named him as his successor to the
Achaemenid throne. The Achaemenid Empire is normally considered to have fallen
with Darius.
Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him.
This campaign, initially against Bessus, turned into a grand tour of central
Asia. Alexander founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including
modern Kandahar
in Afghanistan, and
Alexandria Eschate
(“The Furthest”) in modern
Tajikistan
. The campaign took Alexander through
Media
,
Parthia
,
Aria
(West Afghanistan),
Drangiana
,
Arachosia
(South and Central Afghanistan),
Bactria
(North and Central Afghanistan), and
Scythia
.
Spitamenes
, who held an undefined position in
the satrapy of Sogdiana, in 329 BC betrayed Bessus to
Ptolemy
, one of Alexander’s trusted companions,
and Bessus was executed. However, when, at some point later, Alexander was on
the Jaxartes
dealing with an incursion by a horse
nomad army, Spitamenes raised Sogdiana in revolt. Alexander personally defeated
the Scythians at the
Battle of Jaxartes
and immediately launched a
campaign against Spitamenes, defeating him in the Battle of Gabai. After the
defeat, Spitamenes was killed by his own men, who then sued for peace.The empire
began falling as military leaders and eventually Alexander died.
Problems and plots
During this time, Alexander took the Persian title “King of Kings” (Shahanshah)
and adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the
custom of
proskynesis
, either a symbolic kissing of
the hand, or prostration on the ground, that Persians showed to their social
superiors. The Greeks regarded the gesture as the province of
deities
and believed that Alexander meant to
deify himself by requiring it. This cost him the sympathies of many of his
countrymen, and he eventually abandoned it.
A plot against his life was revealed, and one of his officers,
Philotas
, was executed for failing to alert
Alexander. The death of the son necessitated the death of the father, and thus
Parmenion
, who had been charged with guarding
the treasury at Ecbatana
, was assassinated at Alexander’s
command, to prevent attempts at vengeance. Most infamously, Alexander personally
killed the man who had saved his life at Granicus,
Cleitus the Black
, during a violent drunken
altercation at
Maracanda
(modern day
Samarkand
in
Uzbekistan
), in which Cleitus accused Alexander
of several judgemental mistakes and most especially, of having forgot the
Macedonian ways in favour of a corrupt oriental lifestyle.
Macedon in
Alexander’s absence
When Alexander set out for Asia, he left his general
Antipater
, an experienced military and
political leader and part of Philip II’s “Old Guard”, in charge of Macedon.
Alexander’s sacking of Thebes ensured that Greece remained quiet during his
absence. The one exception was a call to arms by Spartan king
Agis III
in 331 BC, whom Antipater defeated and
killed in battle at
Megalopolis
the following year. Antipater
referred the Spartans’ punishment to the League of Corinth, which then deferred
to Alexander, who chose to pardon them. There was also considerable friction
between Antipater and Olympias, and each complained to Alexander about the
other.
In general, Greece enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity during
Alexander’s campaign in Asia. Alexander sent back vast sums from his conquest,
which stimulated the economy and increased trade across his empire.However,
Alexander’s constant demands for troops and the migration of Macedonians
throughout his empire depleted Macedon’s manpower, greatly weakening it in the
years after Alexander, and ultimately led to its subjugation by Rome.
Indian campaign
After the death of
Spitamenes
and his marriage to Roxana (Roshanak
in
Bactrian
) to cement relations with his new
satrapies, Alexander turned to the
Indian subcontinent
. He invited the
chieftains
of the former satrapy of
Gandhara
, in the north of what is now
Pakistan
, to come to him and submit to his
authority.
Omphis
, ruler of
Taxila
, whose kingdom extended from the
Indus
to the
Hydaspes
, complied, but the chieftains of some
hill clans, including the
Aspasioi
and
Assakenoi
sections of the
Kambojas
(known in Indian texts also as
Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas), refused to submit.In the winter of 327/326 BC,
Alexander personally led a campaign against these clans; the Aspasioi of
Kunar
valleys
, the Guraeans of the
Guraeus
valley, and the Assakenoi of the
Swat
and
Buner
valleys.A fierce contest ensued with the
Aspasioi in which Alexander was wounded in the shoulder by a dart, but
eventually the Aspasioi lost. Alexander then faced the Assakenoi, who fought in
the strongholds of Massaga, Ora and
Aornos
.The fort of Massaga was reduced only
after days of bloody fighting, in which Alexander was wounded seriously in the
ankle.
After Aornos, Alexander crossed the Indus and fought and won an epic battle
against King Porus
, who ruled a region in the
Punjab
, in the
Battle of the Hydaspes
in 326 BC. Alexander was
impressed by Porus’s bravery, and made him an ally. He appointed Porus as
satrap, and added to Porus’ territory land that he did not previously own.
Choosing a local helped him control these lands so distant from Greece.Alexander
founded two cities on opposite sides of the
Hydaspes
river, naming one
Bucephala
, in honor of his horse, who died
around this time.The other was
Nicaea
(Victory) located at the site of modern
day Mong, Punjab
.
Revolt of the army
East of Porus’ kingdom, near the
Ganges River
, were the
Nanda Empire
of
Magadha
and further east the
Gangaridai Empire
of
Bengal
. Fearing the prospect of facing other
large armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, Alexander’s army mutinied at
the Hyphasis River
, refusing to march farther east.
This river thus marks the easternmost extent of Alexander’s conquests. Alexander
tried to persuade his soldiers to march farther, but his general
Coenus
pleaded with him to change his opinion
and return; the men, he said, “longed to again see their parents, their wives
and children, their homeland”. Alexander eventually agreed and turned south,
marching along the
Indus
. Along the way his army conquered the
Malli
clans (in modern day
Multan
) and other Indian tribes.
Alexander sent much of his army to
Carmania
(modern southern
Iran) with general
Craterus
, and commissioned a fleet to explore
the Persian Gulf
shore under his admiral
Nearchus
, while he led the rest back to Persia
through the more difficult southern route along the
Gedrosian Desert
and
Makran
(now part of southern Iran and
Pakistan).Alexander reached Susa in 324 BC, but not before losing many men to
the harsh desert.
Last years in Persia
Discovering that many of his
satraps
and military governors had misbehaved
in his absence, Alexander executed several of them as examples on his way to
Susa. As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers,
and announced that he would send over-aged and disabled veterans back to
Macedon, led by Craterus. His troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at
the town of Opis
. They refused to be sent away and
criticized his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of
Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units.
Death and succession
On either 10 or 11 June 323 BC, Alexander died in the palace of
Nebuchadnezzar II
, in
Babylon
, at age 32. Details of the death differ
slightly – Plutarch
‘s account is that roughly 14 days
before his death, Alexander entertained admiral
Nearchus
, and spent the night and next day
drinking with
Medius of Larissa
.He developed a fever, which
worsened until he was unable to speak. Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian and Justin
all mentioned the theory that Alexander was poisoned.
The strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days
passed between the start of his illness and his death; such long-acting poisons
were probably not available. In 2010, however, a new theory proposed that the
circumstances of his death were compatible with poisoning by water of the river
Styx (Mavroneri)
that contained
calicheamicin
, a dangerous compound produced by
bacteria
.
Several
natural causes
(diseases) have been suggested,
including malaria
and
typhoid fever
.
After death
Alexander’s body was laid in a gold anthropoid
sarcophagus
that was filled with honey, which
was in turn placed in a gold casket. While Alexander’s funeral cortege was on
its way to Macedon, Ptolemy stole it and took it to Memphis. His successor,
Ptolemy II Philadelphus
, transferred the
sarcophagus to Alexandria, where it remained until at least
late Antiquity
.
Ptolemy IX Lathyros
, one of Ptolemy’s final
successors, replaced Alexander’s sarcophagus with a glass one so he could
convert the original to coinage.
Pompey
,
Julius Caesar
and
Augustus
all visited the tomb in Alexandria.
Caligula
was said to have taken Alexander’s
breastplate from the tomb for his own use. In c. AD 200, Emperor
Septimius Severus
closed Alexander’s tomb to
the public. His son and successor,
Caracalla
, a great admirer, visited the tomb
during his own reign. After this, details on the fate of the tomb are hazy.
Division of the empire
Alexander’s death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached
Greece, they were not immediately believed.Alexander had no obvious or
legitimate heir, his son Alexander IV by Roxane being born after Alexander’s
death.According to Diodorus, Alexander’s companions asked him on his deathbed to
whom he bequeathed his kingdom; his laconic reply was “tôi kratistôi”—”to the
strongest”.
In 321 BC, Macedonian unity collapsed, and 40 years of war between “The
Successors” (Diadochi) ensued before the Hellenistic world settled into
four stable power blocks: the
Ptolemaic Kingdom
of Egypt, the
Seleucid Empire
in the east, the Kingdom of
Pergamon
in Asia Minor, and Macedon. In the
process, both Alexander IV and Philip III were murdered.
Character
Alexander earned the epithet “the Great” due to his unparalleled success as a
military commander. He never lost a battle, despite typically being
outnumbered.This was due to use of terrain,
phalanx
and cavalry tactics, bold strategy, and
the fierce loyalty of his troops.The
Macedonian phalanx
, armed with the
sarissa
, a spear 6 metres (20 ft) long, had
been developed and perfected by Philip II through rigorous training, and
Alexander used its speed and maneuverability to great effect against larger but
more disparate Persian forces.Alexander also recognized the potential for
disunity among his diverse army, which employed various languages and weapons.
He overcame this by being personally involved in battle,in the manner of a
Macedonian king.
When faced with opponents who used unfamiliar fighting techniques, such as in
Central Asia and India, Alexander adapted his forces to his opponents’ style.
Thus, in Bactria
and
Sogdiana
, Alexander successfully used his
javelin throwers and archers to prevent outflanking movements, while massing his
cavalry at the center. In India, confronted by Porus’ elephant corps, the
Macedonians opened their ranks to envelop the elephants and used their sarissas
to strike upwards and dislodge the elephants’ handlers.
Physical appearance:
Greek historian Arrian
described Alexander as:
The strong, handsome commander with one eye dark as the night and one
blue as the sky.
Alexander suffered from
heterochromia iridum
: that one eye was dark and
the other light.
Personality
Some of Alexander’s strongest personality traits formed in response to his
parents.His mother had huge ambitions, and encouraged him to believe it was his
destiny to conquer the Persian Empire. Olympias’ influence instilled a sense of
destiny in him, and Plutarch tells us that his ambition “kept his spirit serious
and lofty in advance of his years”. However, his father Philip was Alexander’s
most immediate and influential role model, as the young Alexander watched him
campaign practically every year, winning victory after victory while ignoring
severe wounds.Alexander’s relationship with his father forged the competitive
side of his personality; he had a need to out-do his father, illustrated by his
reckless behavior in battle. While Alexander worried that his father would leave
him “no great or brilliant achievement to be displayed to the world”, he also
downplayed his father’s achievements to his companions.
According to Plutarch, among Alexander’s traits were a violent temper and
rash, impulsive nature, which undoubtedly contributed to some of his decisions.
Although Alexander was stubborn and did not respond well to orders from his
father, he was open to reasoned debate. He had a calmer side—perceptive,
logical, and calculating. He had a great desire for knowledge, a love for
philosophy, and was an avid reader.This was no doubt in part due to Aristotle’s
tutelage; Alexander was intelligent and quick to learn. His intelligent and
rational side was amply demonstrated by his ability and success as a general.
Alexander was erudite and patronized both arts and sciences.However, he had
little interest in sports or the
Olympic games
(unlike his father), seeking only
the
Homeric
ideals of honor (timê) and glory
(kudos). He had great
charisma
and force of personality,
characteristics which made him a great leader. His unique abilities were further
demonstrated by the inability of any of his generals to unite Macedonia and
retain the Empire after his death – only Alexander had the ability to do so.
During his final years, and especially after the death of Hephaestion,
Alexander began to exhibit signs of
megalomania
and
paranoia
.His extraordinary achievements,
coupled with his own ineffable sense of destiny and the flattery of his
companions, may have combined to produce this effect.
He appears to have believed himself a deity, or at least sought to deify
himself. Olympias always insisted to him that he was the son of Zeus,a theory
apparently confirmed to him by the oracle of Amun at
Siwa
. He began to identify himself as the son
of Zeus-Ammon.Alexander adopted elements of Persian dress and customs at court,
notably
proskynesis
, a practice that Macedonians
disapproved, and were loath to perform. This behavior cost him the sympathies of
many of his countrymen.However, Alexander also was a pragmatic ruler who
understood the difficulties of ruling culturally disparate peoples, many of whom
lived in kingdoms where the king was divine.Thus, rather than megalomania, his
behavior may simply have been a practical attempt at strengthening his rule and
keeping his empire together.
Personal relationships
Alexander, left, and
Hephaestion
, right
The central personal relationship of Alexander’s life was with his friend,
general, and bodyguard
Hephaestion
, the son of a Macedonian
noble.Hephaestion’s death devastated Alexander.This event may have contributed
to Alexander’s failing health and detached
mental state
during his final months.
Alexander married twice:
Roxana
, daughter of the
Bactrian
nobleman
Oxyartes
, out of love; and
Stateira II
, a Persian princess and daughter of
Darius III
of Persia, for political reasons. He
apparently had two sons, Alexander IV of Macedon of Roxana and, possibly,
Heracles of Macedon
from his mistress Barsine.
He lost another child when Roxana miscarried at Babylon.
Alexander’s sexuality has been the subject of speculation and controversy. No
ancient sources stated that Alexander had
homosexual
relationships, or that Alexander’s
relationship with Hephaestion was sexual. Aelian, however, writes of Alexander’s
visit to Troy
where “Alexander garlanded the tomb of
Achilles and Hephaestion that of
Patroclus
, the latter riddling that he was a
beloved of Alexander, in just the same way as Patroclus was of Achilles”. Noting
that the word
eromenos
(ancient Greek for beloved) does
not necessarily bear sexual meaning, Alexander may have been bisexual, which in
his time was not controversial.
Influence on Rome
Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans, especially generals,
who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements.
Pompey the Great
adopted the epithet “Magnus”
and even Alexander’s anatole-type haircut, and searched the conquered lands of
the east for Alexander’s 260-year-old cloak, which he then wore as a sign of
greatness.
Julius Caesar
dedicated a
Lysippean
equestrian
bronze
statue but replaced Alexander’s head
with his own, while
Octavian
visited Alexander’s tomb in Alexandria
and temporarily changed his seal from a
sphinx
to Alexander’s profile. The emperor
Trajan
also admired Alexander, as did
Nero and
Caracalla
.The Macriani, a Roman family that in
the person of Macrinus
briefly ascended to the imperial
throne, kept images of Alexander on their persons, either on jewelry, or
embroidered into their clothes.
Alexander the Great’s accomplishments and legacy have been depicted in many
cultures. Alexander has figured in both high and popular culture beginning in
his own era to the present day. The Alexander Romance, in particular, has
had a significant impact on portrayals of Alexander in later cultures, from
Persian to medieval European to modern Greek.
The army
of the
Kingdom of Macedonia
was among the greatest
military forces of the ancient world. It became formidable under King
Philip II of Macedon
and his son,
Alexander the Great
.
The latest innovations in weapons and tactics, along with unique combination
of military elements introduced by Philip II, came together into the army that
won an intercontinental empire. By introducing military service as a full-time
occupation, Philip was able to drill his men regularly, ensuring unity and
cohesion in his ranks. In a remarkably short time, this led to one of the finest
military machines that Asia
or
Greece
had ever seen.
Tactical innovations included adaptations of the latest tactics applied to
the traditional Greek
phalanx
by men such as
Epaminondas
of Thebes (who twice defeated the
Spartans), as well as coordinated attacks (early
combined arms
tactics) with the various arms of
his army — the phalanx, cavalry, missile troops and, under Alexander III,
siege engines
. A novel weapon was introduced,
the sarissa
, a type of counter-weighted (like all
Greek spears)
pike
, which gave its wielder many advantages
both offensively and defensively. For the first time in Greek warfare, cavalry
became a decisive arm in battle.
The new Macedonian army was an amalgamation of different forces. Macedonians
and other Greeks (especially
Thessalian
cavalry) and a wide range of
mercenaries from across the
Aegean
and Balkans were employed by Phillip. By
338 BC, more than a half of the army for his planned invasion of
Persia
came from outside the borders of
Macedon
— from all over the Greek world and the
nearby barbarian tribes.
Unfortunately, the primary historical sources for this period have been lost.
As a consequence, scholarship is largely reliant on the writings of
Diodorus Siculus
and
Arrian
, both of whom lived centuries later than
the events they describe.
Origins
Philip II of Macedon – silver tetradrachm coin.
If Philip II had not been the father of Alexander the Great, he would be more
widely known as a first-rate military innovator, tactician and strategist, and
as a consummate politician. The conquests of Alexander would have been
impossible without the army his father created. Considered semi-barbarous by the
metropolitan Greeks, the Macedonians were a martial people; they drank deeply of
unwatered wine (the very mark of a barbarian) and no youth was considered to be
fit to sit with the men at table until he had killed, on foot with a spear, a
wild boar.[2]
When Philip took over control of Macedon, it was a backward state on the
fringes of the Greek world and was beset by its traditional enemies: Illyrians,
Paeonians and Thracians. Macedon itself was not unified, it consisted of a
heartland inhabited by the Macedonians proper and many highland ‘baronies’
peopled by tribesmen ruled by semi-hellenised chieftains who recognised the
power of the king only when it was in their interest. Previous kings of Macedon
had raised armies including good quality cavalry, a small number of
hoplite
infantry and fairly numerous light
infantry; however, these forces were not rigorously trained or organised and
were only just capable of keeping Macedon intact — the kingdom often being
raided or invaded by the surrounding barbarian peoples.
Philip’s first achievement was to unify Macedon through his army. He raised
troops and made his army the single fount of wealth, honour and power in the
land; the unruly chieftains of Macedonia became the officers and elite
cavalrymen of the army, the highland peasants became the footsoldiers. Philip
took pains to keep them always under arms and either fighting or drilling.
Manoeuvres and drills were made into competitive events, and the truculent
Macedonians vied with each other to excel.[3]
As a political counterbalance to the native-born Macedonian nobility, Philip
invited military families from throughout Greece to settle on lands he had
conquered or confiscated from his enemies, these ‘personal clients’ then also
served in the Companion cavalry. After taking control of the gold-rich mines of
Mount Pangaeus, and the city of
Amphipolis
that dominated the region, he
obtained the wealth to support a large army, moreover it was a professional army
imbued with a national spirit. By the time of his death, Philip’s army had
pushed the Macedonian frontier into southern Illyria, conquered the Paeonians
and Thracians, destroyed the power of
Phocis
and defeated and humbled
Athens
and
Thebes
. All the states of Greece, with the
exception of Sparta, Epirus and Crete, had become subservient allies of Macedon
(League
of Corinth) and Philip was laying the foundations of an invasion of
the Persian Empire, an invasion that his son would successfully undertake.[4]
One important military innovation of Philip II is often overlooked, he banned
the use of wheeled transport and limited the number of camp servants to one to
every ten infantrymen and one each for the cavalry. This reform made the baggage
train of the army very small for its size and improved its speed of march.[5]
Troop types
and unit organisation
Ancient depiction of a Macedonian cavalryman (left). This shows
Alexander the Great as a cavalryman. He wears a helmet in the form
of the lion-scalp of Herakles. Detail of the so-called
Alexander Sarcophagus
, excavated at
Sidon.
Heavy Cavalry
The Companion Cavalry
The Companion cavalry, or
Hetairoi
(Ἑταῖροι),
were the elite arm of the Macedonian army, and have been regarded as the best
cavalry[6]
in the
ancient world
. Along with Thessalian cavalry
contingents, the Companions—raised from landed nobility—made up the bulk of the
Macedonian heavy cavalry. Central Macedonia was good horse-rearing country and
cavalry was prominent in Macedonian armies from early times. However, it was the
reforms in organisation, drill and tactics introduced by Philip II that
transformed the Companion cavalry into a battle-winning force.
The term hetairos became an
aulic title
in the
Diadochi
period, and the hetairoi were
divided into squadrons called ilai (singular: ilē), each 200 men
strong, except for the Royal Squadron, which numbered 300. The Royal Squadron
was also known as the Agema – “that which leads.” Each squadron was
commanded by an ilarchēs (ilarch) and appears to have been raised from a
particular area of Macedon. Arrian for instance described squadrons from
Bottiaea, Amphipolis, Apollonia and Anthemus.[7]
It is probable that Alexander took 8 squadrons with him on his invasion of Asia
totalling 1,800 men, leaving 7 ilai behind in Macedon (the 1,500
cavalrymen mentioned by Diodorus).[8]
Between 330 BC and 328 BC the Companions were reformed into regiments
(hipparchies) of 2-3 squadrons. In conjunction with this each squadron was
divided into two lochoi. This was probably undertaken to allow for the increase
in size of each squadron, as reinforcements and amalgamations meant the
Companion cavalry grew in size. At this time, Alexander abandoned the regional
organisation of the ilai, choosing their officers regardless of their origins.[9]
The individual Companion cavalry squadron was usually deployed in a wedge
formation, which facilitated both manoeuvrability and the shock of the charge.
The advantage of the wedge was that it offered a narrow point for piercing enemy
formations and concentrated the leaders at the front. It was easier to turn than
a square formation because everyone followed the leader at the apex, “like a
flight of cranes.” Philip II introduced the formation, probably in emulation of
Thracian and Scythian cavalry, though the example of the rhomboid formation
adopted by Macedon’s southern neighbours, the Thessalians, must also have had
some effect.[10]
The primary weapon of the Macedonian cavalry was the
xyston
, a double ended lance, with a sword as a
secondary weapon. From descriptions of combat, it would appear that once in
melee the Companion cavalryman used his lance to thrust at the chests and faces
of the enemy. It is possible that the lance was aimed at the upper body of an
opposing cavalryman in the expectation that a blow which did not wound or kill
might have sufficient leverage to unseat. If the lance broke, the Companion
could reverse it and use the other end, or draw his sword.
Cleitus
, an officer of the Companions, saved
Alexander the Great’s life at the Granicus by cutting off an enemy horseman’s
arm with his sword.[11]
Companion cavalrymen would normally have worn armour and a helmet in battle.
Although the Companion cavalry is largely regarded as the first real shock
cavalry of Antiquity, it seems that Alexander was very wary of using it against
well-formed infantry, as attested by Arrian in his account of the battle against
the Malli, an Indian tribe he faced after Hydaspes. There, Alexander did not
dare assault the dense infantry formation with his cavalry, but rather waited
for his infantry to arrive, while he and his cavalry harassed their flanks. It
is a common mistake to portray the Companion cavalry as a force able to burst
through compact infantry lines. Alexander usually launched the Companions at the
enemy after a gap had opened up between their units or disorder had already
disrupted their ranks. The Companions that accompanied Alexander to Asia
numbered 1,800 men. This number steadily grew as the campaign progressed, with
300 reinforcements arrving from Macedon after the first year of campaigning.
They were usually arrayed on the right flank (this being the position of honour
in Hellenic armies, where the best troops would be positioned), and typically
carried out the decisive maneuver/assault of the battle under Alexander’s direct
leadership.[12]
Thessalian Cavalry
A heavy cavalryman of Alexander the Great’s army, possibly a
Thessalian. He wears a cuirass (probably a linothorax) and a
Boeotian helmet, and is equipped with a scabbarded xiphos
straight-bladed sword. Alexander Sarcophagus.
Following the defeat of Lycophron of
Pherae
and
Onomarchos
of
Phocis
, Philip II of Macedon was appointed
Archon of the
Thessalian League
; his death induced the
Thessalians to attempt to throw off Macedonian hegemony, but a short bloodless
campaign by Alexander restored them to allegiance. The Thessalians were
considered the finest cavalry of Greece.
The Thessalian heavy cavalry accompanied Alexander during the first half of
his Asian campaign and was at times employed by the Macedonians as allies
throughout the later years until
Macedon
‘s final demise under the Roman gladius.
Its organization and weaponry were similar to the Companion Cavalry. However,
shorter spears and javelins were wielded in addition to the
xyston
. The Thessalian cavalry was famed for
its use of
rhomboid formations
, said to have been
developed by the Thessalian Tagos (head of the Thessalian League)
Jason of Pherae
. This formation was very
efficient for manoeuvring, as it allowed the squadron to change direction at
speed while still retaining cohesion.[13]
The numbers given for Alexander’s invasion of the
Persian Empire
included 1,800 such men. This
number would have risen no higher than 2,000. They were typically entrusted with
the defensive role of guarding the left flank from enemy cavalry, allowing the
decisive attack to be launched on the right. They often faced tremendous
opposition when in this role. At
Issus
and
Gaugamela
, the Thessalians withstood the attack
of Persian cavalry forces, though greatly outnumbered.
At Ecbatana, the Thessalians with Alexander’s army were mustered out and sent
home. Some remained with the army as mercenaries yet these too were sent home a
year later when the army reached the
Oxus River
.
Other Greek cavalry
The Hellenic states allied to, or more accurately under the hegemony of,
Macedon provided contingents of heavy cavalry and the Macedonian kings hired
mercenaries of the same origins. Alexander had 600 Greek cavalrymen at the start
of his campaign against Persia, probably organised into 5 ilai. These
cavalrymen would have been equipped very similarly to the Thessalians and
Companions, but they deployed in a square formation eight deep and sixteen
abreast.[8]
The Greek cavalry was not considered as effective or versatile as the Thessalian
and Macedonian cavalry.
Light Cavalry
Light cavalry, such as the Prodromoi, secured the wings of the army
during battle and went on
reconnaissance
missions. Apart from the
Prodromoi, other horsemen from subject or allied nations, raised from a variety
of places, filling various tactical roles and wielding different weapons,
rounded out the cavalry. By the time Alexander campaigned in India and
subsequently, the cavalry had been drastically reformed and included thousands
of horse-archers from Iranian peoples such as the
Dahae
(prominent at the
Battle of Hydaspes
), other mounted missile
troops, plus Asiatic heavy cavalry.
Prodromoi
The Prodromoi were Macedonians, they are sometimes referred to as
Sarissophoroi, or “lancers”, which leads to the conclusion that they sometimes
were armed with an uncommonly long xyston (believed to be 14 ft long), though
certainly not an infantry pike. They acted as scouts reconnoitering in front of
the army when it was on the march. In battle, they were used in a shock role to
protect the right flank of the Companion cavalry. Their abilities as scouts
would seem to have been mediocre because when Persian light cavalry were
recruited into the Macedonian army following Gaugamela they took over these
duties, with the Prodromoi assuming a purely battlefield role as shock cavalry.
Four ilai, each 150 strong, of Prodromoi operated with Alexander’s army in Asia.[14]
Paeonian cavalry
These light cavalry were recruited from
Paeonia
, a tribal region to the north of
Macedonia. The Paeones had been reduced to tributary status by Philip II. Led by
their own chieftains, the Paeonian cavalry was usually brigaded with the
Prodromoi and often operated alongside them in battle. They appear to have been
armed with javelins and swords. Initially only one squadron strong, they
received 500 reinforcements in Egypt and a further 600 at Susa.[15]
Thracian cavalry
Javelin-armed Thracian horseman – hunting wild boar.
Largely recruited from the Odrysian tribe, the Thracian cavalry also acted as
scouts on the march. In battle, they performed much the same function as the
Prodromoi and Paeonians, except they guarded the flank of the Thessalian cavalry
on the left wing of the army. The Thracians deployed in their ancestral wedge
formations and were armed with javelins and swords. At Gaugamela, the Thracians
fielded 4 ilai and were about 500 strong.[15]
Horse Archers
In 329 BC, Alexander, while in
Sogdiana
, created a 1,000 strong unit of horse
archers that was recruited from various Iranian peoples. They were very
effective at scouting and in screening the rest of the army from the enemy.
Firing their bows whilst mounted, they offered highly mobile missile fire on the
battlefield. At the Battle of Hydaspes, the massed fire of the horse archers was
effective at disordering the Indian cavalry and helped to neutralise the Indian
chariots.[16]
Infantry
The Macedonian foot soldiers were formed into an
infantry
formation
developed by
Philip II
and used by his son
Alexander the Great
to conquer the
Persian Empire
and other enemies. These
infantrymen were called
Pezhetairoi
— the Foot Companions — and
made up the dreaded Macedonian phalanx.
Philip II spent much of his youth as a hostage at
Thebes
, where he studied under the renowned
general Epaminondas
, whose reforms were the basis for a
good part of Philip’s tactics. However, the introduction of the
sarissa
pike, heavier armour and a smaller
shield seem to have been innovations devised by Philip himself. Diodorus claimed
that Philip was inspired to make changes in the organisation of his Macedonian
infantry from reading a passage in the writings of
Homer
describing a close-packed formation.[17]
Foot Companions were levied from the peasantry of Macedon. Once levied they
became professional soldiers. Discharge could only be granted by the King. Under
Philip the Foot Companions received no regular pay. This seems to have changed
by Alexander’s time as during the mutiny at Opis in 324 BC the men were
chastised by Alexander for having run up debts despite earning “good pay”.[18]
Through extensive drilling and training, the Foot Companions were able to
execute complex manoeuvres well beyond the reach of most contemporary armies.
The sound of myriads of pikes moving though the air in unison, as they were
deployed, was said to be most impressive, and very demoralising to the ears of
enemy troops.
A drawing of a Macedonian phalanx. The shields depicted are smaller
and lighter than those employed in a traditional hoplite phalanx,
the sarissa
is twice as long as the
hoplite spear and fully enclosed helmets weren’t as widespread as
this drawing suggests.)
The size of the phalanx fielded by Macedon and its various successor states
varied greatly. Alexander the Great, for example, fielded 9,000 Foot Companions
throughout much of his campaign. These were divided into 1,500-man battalions,
each raised from a separate district of Macedon.
Philip V
fielded 16,000 phalangites at the
Battle of Cynoscephalae
, and
Perseus
reputedly fielded over 20,000 at
Pydna
.
These soldiers fought in close-ranked rectangular or square formations, of
which the smallest tactical unit was the 256 men strong syntagma or
speira. This formation typically fought eight or sixteen men deep and in a
frontage of thirty-two or sixteen men accordingly. Each file of 16 men, a
lochos
. was commanded by a
lochagos
who was in the front rank. Junior
officers, one at the rear and one in the centre, were in place to steady the
ranks and maintain the cohesion of the formation, similar to modern-day
NCOs
. The commander of the syntagma
theoretically fought at the head of the extreme far-right file. According to
Aelian
, a syntagma was accompanied by
five additional individuals to the rear: a herald (to act as a messenger), a
trumpeter (to sound out commands), an ensign (to hold the unit’s standard), an
additional officer (called ouragos), and a servant. This array of both
audial and visual communication methods helped to make sure that even in the
dust and din of battle orders could still be received and given. Six
syntagmata formed a taxis of 1,500 men commanded by a strategos,
six taxeis formed a phalanx under a phalangiarch.[19]
Each phalangite carried as his primary weapon a sarissa, which was a
type of
pike
. The length of these pikes was such that
they had to be wielded with two hands in battle. The traditional Greek hoplite
used his spear single-handed, as the large hoplon shield needed to be
gripped by the left hand, therefore the Macedonian phalangite gained in both
weapon reach and in the added force of a two handed thrust. At close range, such
large weapons were of little use, but an intact phalanx could easily keep its
enemies at a distance; the weapons of the first five rows of men all projected
beyond the front of the formation, so that there were more spearpoints than
available targets at any given time. The men of the rear ranks raised their
sarissas so as to provide protection from aerial missiles. A phalangite also
carried a sword as a secondary weapon for close quarter fighting should the
phalanx disintegrate. The phalanx, however, was extremely vulnerable in the
flanks and rear.[20]
Alexander did not actually use the phalanx as the decisive arm of his
battles, but instead used it to pin and demoralize the enemy while his heavy
cavalry
would charge selected opponents or
exposed enemy unit flanks, most usually after driving the enemy horse from the
field. An example of this is the
Battle of Gaugamela
, where, after maneuvering
to the right to prevent a double envelopment from the Persian army and making
Darius command his cavalry on his left flank to check the oblique movement of
the Greeks by attacking their cavalry,
Companion cavalry
charged the weakened enemy
center where Darius was posted and were followed by the
hypaspists
and the phalanx proper.
The phalanx carried with it a fairly minimal baggage train, with only one
servant
for every ten men. This gave it a
marching
speed
that contemporary
armies could not hope to match — on occasion forces surrendered to
Alexander simply because they were not expecting him to show up for several more
days. This was made possible thanks to the training Philip instilled in his
army, which included regular forced marches.
The Macedonian phalanx itself was thus not very different from the hoplite
phalanx of other Greek states as a formation. As an evolution of the hoplite
phalanx, it featured improved equipment, training, and tactics. In Philip’s and
Alexander’s time, the Macedonian phalanx had clear technical superiority.
Ancient depiction of a Macedonian infantryman (right). He is
equipped with a hoplon (Argive) shield, so probably is a
Hypaspist. He also wears a
linothorax
cuirass and a
Thracian helmet
.
Alexander Sarcophagus
.
Hypaspists
The Hypaspists
(Hypaspistai) were the
elite
arm of the Macedonian infantry. The word
‘hypaspists’ translates into English as ‘shield-bearers’. During a pitched
battle, such as
Gaugamela
, they acted as guard for the right
flank of the phalanx and as a flexible link between the phalanx and the
Companion cavalry. They were used for a variety of irregular missions by
Alexander, often in conjunction with the
Agrianians
(elite skirmishers), the Companions
and select units of phalangites. They were prominent in accounts of Alexander’s
siege assaults in close proximity to Alexander himself. The Hypaspists were of
privileged Macedonian blood and their senior chiliarchy formed the Agema[21]
foot bodyguard of Alexander III.[22]
The Hypaspist regiment was divided into three battalions (chiliarchies)
of 1,000 men, which were then further sub-divided in a manner similar to the
Foot Companions. Each battalion would be commanded by a chiliarch, with the
regiment as a whole under the command of an archihypaspist.
In terms of weaponry, they were probably equipped in the style of a
traditional Greek hoplite
with a thrusting spear or
doru
(shorter and less unwieldy than the
sarissa) and a large round shield (hoplon).[23]
As well as this, they would have carried a sword, either a
xiphos
or a
kopis
. This would have made them far better
suited to engagements where formations and cohesion had broken down, making them
well suited to siege assaults and special missions. Their armour appears to have
varied depending on the type of mission they were conducting. When taking part
in rapid forced marches or combat in broken terrain, so common in the eastern
Persian Empire
, it appears that they wore
little more than a helmet and a cloak (exomis)
so as to enhance their stamina and mobility. However, when engaging in heavy
hand to hand fighting, for instance during a siege or pitched battle, they would
have worn body armour of either linen or bronze. This variety of armaments made
them an extremely versatile force. Their numbers were kept at full strength,
despite casualties, by continual replenishment through the transfer of veteran
soldiers chosen from the phalanx.[24]
In the last years of Alexander’s reign, the Hypaspists may have been renamed
to become the
Argyraspides
, or Silver Shields. However, some
scholars believe that the Argyraspides were formed from veterans selected from
the whole phalanx.
Other Infantry
Philip’s control over the mines of northern Greece gave him access to
unprecedented (for his part of the world) wealth in
gold and silver
, and enabled him to build his famous
army. Philip and Alexander employed troops from the confederated Greek states
and hired thousands of mercenaries from various nations to round-out their
armies.
Diodorus Siculus
, a Greek
historian
, records troops as varied as allied
and mercenary
hoplites
from various Greek states, light
infantry adept at
skirmish
tactics, such as
peltasts
, recruited from various northern
Balkan peoples and from Greece,
Cretan archers
, and
artillerists
. Spearmen from
Pontus
and
Phrygia
were also employed.[25]
These mixed troops provided added strength and flexibility throughout
Alexander’s conquests.
Concentrated missile fire from light infantry was used by Alexander to
counter both scythed chariots and war elephants.
Greek hoplites
The army led by Alexander the Great into the Persian Empire included Greek
heavy infantry in the form of allied contingents provided by the League of
Corinth and hired mercenaries. These infantrymen would have been equipped as
hoplites with the traditional hoplite panoply consisting of a thrusting spear (doru),
bronze-faced hoplon shield and body armour. In appearance, they would
have been almost identical to the hypaspists. In battle, the Greek hoplites had
a less active role than the Macedonian phalangites and hypaspists. At Gaugamela,
the Greek infantry formed the defensive rear of the box formation Alexander
arranged his army into, while the Macedonians formed its front face.
Nevertheless, they performed a valuable function in facing down attempts by the
Persian cavalry to surround the Macedonian army and helped deal with the
breakthrough of some Persian horsemen who went on to attack the baggage.
Peltasts
Agrianian peltast – modern illustration
The peltasts raised from the
Agrianes
, a
Paeonian
tribe, were the elite light infantry
of the Macedonian army. They were often used to cover the right flank of the
army in battle, being posted to the right of the Companion cavalry, a position
of considerable honour. They were almost invariably part of any force on
detached duty, especially missions requiring speed of movement.[26]
Other nationalities also provided peltasts for the Macedonian army. Especially
numerous were the Thracians; the Thracian peltasts performed the same function
in battle as the Agrianians, but for the left wing of the army.
Peltasts were armed with a number of javelins and a sword, carried a light
shield but wore no armour, though they sometimes had helmets; they were adept at
skirmishing and were often used to guard the flanks of more heavily equipped
infantry. They usually adopted an open order when facing enemy heavy infantry.
They could throw their javelins at will at the enemy and, unencumbered by armour
or heavy shields, easily evade any counter-charges made by heavily equipped
hoplites. They were, however, quite vulnerable to shock-capable cavalry and
often operated to particular advantage on broken ground where cavalry was
useless and heavy infantry found it difficult to maintain formation.[27][28]
Archers
In most Greek states, archery was not greatly esteemed, nor practiced by
native soldiery, and foreign archers were often employed, such as the Scythians
prominent in Athenian employ. However, Crete was notable for its very effective
archers, whose services as mercenaries were in great demand throughout the Greek
World. Cretan archers were famed for their powerful bows, firing arrows with
large, heavy heads of cast bronze. They carried their arrows in a
quiver
with a protective flap over its opening.
Cretan archers were unusual in carrying a shield, which was relatively small and
faced in bronze. The carrying of shields indicates that the Cretans also had
some ability in hand to hand fighting, an additional factor in their popularity
as mercenaries.[29]
Archers were also raised from Macedonia and various Balkan peoples.
Arms and Armour
Weapons
The hunter on the right is wielding a
kopis
cutting sword, the hunter
on the left holds a scabbarded
xiphos
straight sword. Both
types of sword were used by Macedonian cavalry and infantry. Lion
Hunt mosaic from the Macedonian capital Pella.
Most troops would have carried a type of sword as a secondary weapon. The
straight-bladed shortsword known as the
xiphos
(ξίφος) is depicted in works of art, and
two types of single-edged cutting swords, the
kopis
and
machaira
, are shown in images and are mentioned
in texts. The cutting swords are particularly associated with cavalry use,
especially by Xenophon
, but representations would suggest
that all three sword types were used by cavalry and infantry without obvious
distinction.[30]
Each Companion cavalryman was equipped with a 3 metre double ended
spear/lance with a cornel wood shaft called the
xyston
. The double end meant that should
the xyston break during a battle the rider need only turn his xyston around to
re-arm himself. The Thessalian and Greek cavalry would have been armed similarly
to the Companions, though the Thessalians also used javelins. The xyston was
used to thrust either overarm or underarm with the elbow flexed.[31]
This is usefully illustrated in the Alexander Mosaic, King Alexander is shown
thrusting with his xyston underarm, whilst immediately behind him a cavalryman
is employing the overarm thrust. The shaft of the xyston was tapered allowing
the point of balance, and therefore the hand grip, to be approximately two
thirds of the length of the spear away from the point. During the reign of
Alexander the Great cavalrymen did not carry shields. However, the Companion
cavalry of the
Antigonid dynasty
did carry large, round bossed
shields of Thracian origin.
The armament of the Phalangites is described in the
Military Decree of Amphipolis
. It lists the
fines imposed upon the soldiers who fail to maintain their armament or produce
it upon demand. Offensive weapons were a pike (sarissa),
and a short sword (machaira).
The sarissa was over 6 m (18 ft) in length, with a counterweight and spiked end
at the rear called a sauroter; it seems to have had an iron sleeve in the middle
which may mean that it was in two pieces for the march with the sleeve joining
the two sections before use. It should be stressed that the archaeological
discoveries show that the phalangites also used the two-edged sword (xiphos)
as well as the traditional Greek
hoplite
spear (doru/δόρυ),
which was much shorter than the sarissa. The sources also indicate that
the phalangites were on occasion armed with javelins. The sarissa would have
been useless in siege warfare and other combat situations requiring a less
cumbersome weapon.[32]
Hypaspists and allied and mercenary Greek heavy infantry were equipped as
classic hoplites and would have employed the hoplite spear and a sword.
Light troops were provided by a number of subject and allied peoples. Various
Balkan peoples such as Agrianes, Paeonians and Thracians provided either light
infantry or cavalry or indeed both. Typical light infantry
peltasts
would be armed with a number of
javelins. The individual javelin would have a throwing thong attached to the
shaft at or near its point of balance. The thong was wound around the shaft and
hooked over one or two fingers. The thong made the javelin spin in flight, which
improved accuracy, and the extra leverage increased the range achievable.
Foot archers, notably mercenary Cretans, were also employed; Cretans were
noted for the heavy, large-headed arrows they used. Light cavalry could use
lighter types of lance, javelins and, in the case of Iranian horse archers,
compact composite bows.
Helmets
A simple conical helmet (pilos)
of a type worn by some Macedonian infantrymen.
A
Thracian helmet
. It lacks its cheek
pieces.
Virtually all helmets in use in the Greek world of the period were
constructed of bronze. One helmet prominent in contemporary images was in the
form of a
Phrygian cap
, that is it had a high and
forward-projecting apex, this type of helmet, also known as a “Thracian
helmet“, had a projecting peak above the eyes and usually had large
cheek pieces which were often decorated with stylised beards in embossing. Late
versions of the
Chalcidian helmet
were still in use; this
helmet was a lightened form developed from the
Corinthian helmet
, it had a nasal protection
and modest-sized cheek pieces. Other, more simple, helmets of the conical
‘konos’ or ‘Pilos
type‘, without cheek pieces, were also employed. These helmets were
worn by the heavy infantry.[33]
The Thracian helmet was worn by Macedonian cavalry in King Philip’s day, but
his son Alexander is said to have preferred the open-faced
Boeotian helmet
for his cavalry, as recommended
by Xenophon
.[34]
The royal burial in the
Vergina
Tomb contained a helmet which was a
variation on the Thracian/Phrygian type, exceptionally made of iron, this would
support its use by cavalry.[35]
The Boeotian helmet, though it did not have cheek pieces, had a flaring rim
which was folded into a complex shape offering considerable protection to the
face. The Alexander Mosaic suggests that officers of the heavy cavalry had rank
badges in the form of laurel wreaths (perhaps painted or of metallic
construction) on their helmets.[36]
The Alexander Sarcophagus shows Alexander the Great wearing an elaborate
helmet in the form of the lion scalp of
Herakles
. Alexander’s cousin
Pyrrhus of Epirus
is described as wearing a
helmet with cheek pieces in the shape of ram’s heads. Many examples of helmets
from the period have crest or plume-holders attached, so that a high degree of
martial finery could be achieved by the wearing of imposing headpieces.[37]
Body Armour
Alexander the Great in battle. The king wears a composite cuirass
which copies the shape of the linothorax. The shoulder elements and
upper chest are of plate iron, whilst the waist is composed of scale
armour for ease of movement. There are pteruges of leather or
stiffened linen at the shoulders and hips. The king wears a xiphos
sword. Detail of the Alexander Mosaic (A Roman copy of a Hellenistic
painting).
Body armour in the Macedonian army was derived from a repertiore found
throughout the Greek-speaking world. The most common form of armour was the
linothorax
, which was a cuirass of stiff
linen built up of glued layers of textile. It was composed of the ‘girdle’ a
tubular section, often of four vertical panels, that enclosed the torso. A
shoulder-piece was attached to the upper rear section of the girdle, this
element was split into two wings which were pulled forward over the top of each
shoulder and laced to the chest-section of the girdle. Pteruges, strips of linen
or leather, protected the upper arms and hips of the wearer. The linothorax
could be reinforced with plate bronze or bronze scale elements. Defences of a
similar appearance composed of quilted textile are also described.[38]
Less common, due to its expense, was the
muscle cuirass
. This was a defence made
entirely of plate bronze consisting of a breast and backplate, usually with
shoulder pieces, modelled in relief on the form a muscular male torso. This was
often given pteruges to extend the area of the body covered.[39]
A complete cuirass of plate iron, decorated with gold and modelled on the
form of the linothorax, was discovered in the Macedonian royal burial at
Vergina. This, alongside the evidence of the depiction of Alexander the Great in
the Alexander Mosaic, shows that the technology to make plate armour in iron
existed at this time.[40]
It is to be doubted that this type of armour was worn by persons other than of
royal or very exalted rank.
All of the above forms of armour could be described as thorakes
(plural of thorax). Other forms of armour are mentioned in original
sources, such as the
kotthybos
and a type of “half-armour” the
hemithorakion
(ἡμιθωράκιον); the
precise nature of these defences is not known but it would be reasonable to
conclude that they were lighter and perhaps afforded less protection than the
thorax.[41]
Archaeological remains exist for only one type of limb armour: bronze
greaves
, which protected he lower leg. Greaves
could be worn by both heavy infantry and heavy cavalry, but they are not in
great evidence in contemporary depictions. However, greaves are mentioned in the
Military Decree of Amphipolis
and a pair of
greaves, one shorter than the other, were found in the Vergina Tomb.
Xenophon mentions a type of armour called “the hand” to protect the left,
bridle, arm of heavy cavalrymen, though there is no supporting evidence for its
widespread use. It may have resembled the later
manica
armour used by Roman gladiators and
cataphract
cavalry.[42]
Macedonian shields
Concerning shield dimensions, there are different interpretations by
scholars.[43]
The most common decorative motifs depicted on shields (from coins, ceramics,
reliefs and other sculptural monuments) are variations on solar symbols. Some
scholars have noted that
Asclepiodotus
defined the Macedonian shield as
being different from other Greek shields, in dimensions and construction.
According to descriptions in
Antique
sources, relief depictions, and from
several archaeological findings, it is known that the diameter of the Macedonian
shield varied from 62 cm up to 74 cm. Ancient shields of this type (which were
not restricted to the Macedonians, they were also used by the Illyrians) have
been recently excavated near the village of Bonche, Prilep in the Republic of
Macedonia, not far from a vaulted stone tomb of ‘Macedonian’ type which is dated
to the late 4th century B.C.
[44]
The Macedonian phalangite shield was circular and displayed a slight
convexity; its outer surface was faced by thin bronze sheet. The inner face of
the shield was of wood or a multilayered leather construction, with a band for
the forearm fixed to the centre of the shield.
Plutarch
noted that the phalangites (phalanx
soldiers) carried a small shield on their shoulder. This probably meant that, as
both hands were needed to hold the sarissa, the shield was worn suspended by a
shoulder strap and steadied by the left forearm passing through the armband. The
left hand would project beyond the rim of the shield to grip the sarissa. Recent
reconstructions of the sarissa and phalangite shield showed that the shoulder
strap supporting the shield effectively helps to transfer some of the weight of
the sarissa from the left arm to the shoulders when the sarissa is held
horizontally in its fighting position.[45]
The lefthand figure shows the armband and grip on the inside of a
hoplon or Argive shield – painted Corinthian
krater
c. 560BC.
From pictorial sources, it is probable that the Hypaspists, elite members of
the infantry
, including the Agema of the
King’s personal foot guard, employed a shield of larger dimensions, the
traditional Greek hoplite shield called the hoplon or aspis (ἀσπίς),
it is also referred to as the ‘Argive shield’. This shield, also circular, was
larger than the phalangite shield, it had sheet-bronze facing over a wooden
base; it was held with the left forearm passing through a central armband with a
hand-grip set just inside the rim. This shield was more much convex than the
phalangite shield and had a projecting rim, both features precluding its use
with a double handed pike. The style of shield used by
cavalry
, if any, is less clear; the heavy
cavalry of Alexander’s time did not employ shields.[43]
Light infantry javelineers would have used a version of the pelte
(Ancient Greek: πέλτη) shield, from whence their name, peltast, derived. This
was a light shield made of leather-faced wicker. The shield was of Thracian
origin and was originally shaped like a crescent, however, by the time of
Macedonian greatness many depictions of peltai show them as being oval or
round.
Siege warfare
The Macedonians had developed their siege tactics under Philip. They had for
the first time conducted successful sieges against strongly held and fortified
positions. This was a dramatic shift from earlier warfare, where Greek armies
had lacked the ability to conduct an effective assault. For instance, during the
Peloponnesian War
, the
Spartans
were never able to take
Athens
despite easily conquering her
surrounding territory.
Artillery
A modern reconstruction of the
gastraphetes
The dramatic change in the abilities of Greeks to operate against
fortifications owed much to the development of effective artillery. This had
begun around 400 BC in
Syracuse
under
Dionysius I
. By Alexander’s time,
torsion-powered artillery was in use. Torsion machines used skeins of sinew or
hair rope, which were wound around a frame and twisted so as to power two bow
arms; these could develop much greater force than earlier forms (such as the
gastraphetes
) reliant on the elastic
properties of a bow-stave. Two forms of such
ballista
were used by the Macedonians: a
smaller bolt-shooting type called the
oxybeles
and a larger stone-throwing
machine called the
lithobolos
. The largest lithoboloi
could fire stones up to 80 kg in weight. Such machines could shower the
defenders of a city with missiles and create a breach in the walls themselves.[46]
Alexander the Great appears to have been the first general to use artillery on
the open field of battle, rather than in a siege. He used massed artillery to
fire across a river at a Scythian army, causing it to vacate the opposite river
bank, thus allowing the Macedonian troops to cross and form a bridgehead.[47]
Other siege engines
In conjunction with this, the Macedonians possessed the ability to build an
effective array of siege towers. These allowed men to approach and assault the
enemy walls without being exposed to potentially withering missile fire.
Equally, they meant that more men could be put on the walls in a shorter period
of time, as simple ladders constrained the men attacking to moving up in single
file thus making the task of defending the walls far easier.
Battle Tactics
The Macedonian army was one of the first military forces to use ‘combined
arms tactics’, using a variety of specialised troops to fulfill
specific battlefield roles in order to form a greater whole.
The tactics used by the Macedonian army throughout the various campaigns it
fought were, of course, varied; usually in response to the nature of the enemy
forces and their dispositions, and to the physical nature of the battlefield .
However, there were a number of features of the tactics employed by the
Macedonians in pitched battles which can be identified as being typical. These
features were evident in the first major battle the army, newly trained up by
Philip, fought in 358 BC and could still be discerned at Gaugamela in 331 BC.
The battle fought in 358 BC near
Lake Ohrid
was intended to free Macedon of the
threat from Illyria and recover some western areas of Macedon from Illyrian
control. The Illyrians, led by King
Bardylis
, were at a similar strength to the
Macedonians at about 10-11 thousands. Philip had 600 cavalry, the Illyrians were
concerned about being outflanked by the Macedonian cavalry and formed up in a
hollow square. Philip massed his cavalry on his right flank and arranged his
army in echelon with the left refused. As had been anticipated, the Illyrians
stretched their formation in order to bring the Macedonian left wing into
action. Philip waited until the inevitable gap appeared in the left of the
Illyrian square, he then threw his cavalry at this gap. The cavalry forced their
way into the Illyrian ranks followed by elements of the phalanx. The Illyrians
broke after a fierce struggle, and three-quarters of Bardylis’ army were
slaughtered. The oblique advance with the left refused, the careful manoeuvring
to create disruption in the enemy formation and the knock out charge of the
strong right wing, spearheaded by the Companion cavalry, became standard
Macedonian practice.[48]
Decline
The armies of the
Diadochi
period were equipped and fought mainly
in the same style as Alexander’s. Towards the end, however, there was a general
slide away from the
combined arms
approach, and the phalanx once
more became the arm of decision, much like in the days of the earlier hoplites.
So long as everyone was using the same tactics, these weaknesses were not
immediately apparent, but against a varied force and complex tactics, the
Hellenistic-era phalanx fell prey to its foes. The Phalanx finally met its end
in the Ancient world when the more flexible Roman
manipular
tactics contributed to the end of
Macedon in the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C.
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