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Alexander III the Great – King of Macedonia 336-323 B.C.
Bronze Quarter Unit 12mm (1.74 grams) Unknown mint in Macedon
Struck under Alexander the Great 336-323 B.C.
Reference: Sear 6739 var.; Price 327
Head of Alexander III the Great as Hercules right, wearing the lion-skin headdress.
Hercules’ weapons, bow and club, ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΥ in between.
You are bidding on the exact item pictured,
provided with a Certificate of Authenticity and Lifetime Guarantee of
Authenticity.
The bow and arrow is a projectile
weapon
system (a bow with
arrows
) that predates
recorded history
and is common to most
cultures
.
Archery
is the art, practice, or skill of
applying it.
Description
A bow is a flexible arc which shoots aerodynamic projectiles called
arrows
. A string joins the two ends of the bow
and when the string is drawn back, the ends of the bow are flexed. When the
string is released, the potential energy of the flexed stick is transformed into
the velocity of the arrow.
Archery
is the art or sport of shooting arrows
from bows.
Today, bows and arrows are used primarily for
hunting
and for the sport of
archery
. Though they are still occasionally
used as weapons of war
, the development of
gunpowder
and
muskets
, and the growing size of armies, led to
their replacement in warfare several centuries ago in much of the world.
Someone who makes bows is known as a
bowyer
, and one who makes arrows is a
fletcher
—or in the case of the manufacture of
metal arrow heads, an arrow smith.
History
Scythians
shooting with bows,
Panticapeum
(known today as
Kertch
,
Ukraine
), 4th century BCE.
The bow and arrow is among the oldest composite projectile weapons invented;
only
spear throwers
and
darts
may predate it, having been in use since
30,000 BCE, with the oldest example from 17,500 BCE. However, despite its
ancient provenance, a number of cultures in historical times lacked the bow and
arrow, and in others
oral history
records a time before its
acquisition.
The earliest potential arrow heads date from about 64,000 years ago in the
South African
Sibudu Cave
, though their identification as
arrowheads (as opposed to
spear
or
dart
heads) is uncertain. The first actual bow
fragments are the Stellmoor bows from northern Germany. They were dated to about
8,000 BCE but were destroyed in
Hamburg
during the Second World War, before
carbon 14 dating
was available; their age is
attributed by archaeological association. The oldest bows in one piece are the
elm
Holmegaard bows
from
Denmark
which were dated to 9,000 BCE. High
performance wooden bows are currently made following the Holmegaard design.
The bow and arrow are still used in tribal warfare in
Africa
to this day. An example was documented
in 2009 in Kenya
when the
Kisii-tribe
and
Kalenjin-tribe
clashed resulting in four
deaths.
Construction
Polychrome small-scale model of the archer XI of the west pediment
of the
Temple of Aphaea
, ca. 505–500 BCE.
Parts of the bow
The basic elements of a bow are a pair of curved
elastic
limbs
, traditionally made from
wood, joined by a riser. Both ends of the limbs are connected by a
string known as the
bow string
. By pulling the string backwards the
archer
exerts
compressive force
on the string-facing section,
or
belly
, of the limbs as well as placing the
outer section, or
back
, under
tension
. While the string is held, this stores
the energy later released in putting the arrow to flight.[citation
needed] The force required to hold the string
stationary at full draw is often used to express the power of a bow, and is
known as its draw weight, or weight. Other things being equal, a higher draw
weight means a more powerful bow, which is able to project arrows heavier,
faster, or a greater distance.
The various parts of the bow can be subdivided into further sections. The
topmost limb is known as the upper limb, while the bottom limb is the lower
limb. At the tip of each limb is a nock, which is used to attach the bowstring
to the limbs. The riser is usually divided into the grip, which is held by the
archer, as well as the arrow rest and the bow window. The arrow rest is a small
ledge or extension above the grip which the arrow rests upon while being aimed.
The bow window is that part of the riser above the grip, which contains the
arrow rest.
In bows drawn and held by hand, the maximum draw weight is determined by the
strength of the archer. The maximum distance the string could be displaced and
thus the longest arrow that could be loosed from it, a bow’s draw length, is
determined by the size of the archer.
A composite bow
uses a combination of materials
to create the limbs, allowing the use of materials specialized for the different
functions of a bow limb. The classic composite bow uses wood for lightness and
dimensional stability in the core, horn to store energy in compression, and
sinew
for its ability to store energy in
tension. Such bows, typically Asian, would often use a stiff end on the limb
end, having the effect of a recurve.[16]
In this type of bow, this is known by the Arabic name ‘siyah’.
Modern construction materials for bows include
laminated
wood,
fiberglass
,
metals
, and
carbon fiber
components.
Arrows
An arrow usually consists of a shaft with an arrowhead attached to the front
end, with fletchings and a nock at the other. Modern arrows are usually made
from carbon fibre, aluminum, fiberglass, and wood shafts. Carbon shafts have the
advantage that they do not bend or warp, but they can often be too light weight
to shoot from some bows and are expensive. Aluminum shafts are less expensive
than carbon shafts, but they can bend and warp from use. Wood shafts are the
least expensive option but often will not be identical in weight and size to
each other and break more often than the other types of shafts. Arrow sizes vary
greatly across cultures and range from very short ones that require the use of
special equipment to be shot to ones in use in the
Amazon River
jungles that are 8.5 feet (2.6
metres) long. Most modern arrows are 22 inches (56 cm) to 30 inches (76 cm) in
length.
Arrows come in many types, among which are breasted, bob-tailed, barrelled,
clout, and target. A breasted arrow is thickest at the area right behind the
fletchings, and tapers towards the nock and head. A bob-tailed arrow is thickest
right behind the head, and tapers to the nock. A barrelled arrow is thickest in
the centre of the arrow. Target arrows are those arrows used for target shooting
rather than warfare or hunting, and usually have simple arrowheads.
Arrowheads
The end of the arrow that is designed to hit the target is called the
arrowhead. Usually, these are separate items that are attached to the arrow
shaft by either tangs or sockets. Materials used in the past for arrowheads
include flint, bone, horn, or metal. Most modern arrowheads are made of steel,
but wood and other traditional materials are still used occasionally. A number
of different types of arrowheads are known, with the most common being
bodkins
, broadheads, and piles. Bodkin heads
are simple spikes made of metal of various shapes, designed to pierce armour. A
broadhead arrowhead is usually triangular or leaf-shaped and has a sharpened
edge or edges. Broadheads are commonly used for hunting. A pile arrowhead is a
simple metal cone, either sharpened to a point or somewhat blunt, that is used
mainly for target shooting. A pile head is the same diameter as the arrow shaft
and is usually just fitted over the tip of the arrow. Other heads are known,
including the blunt head, which is flat at the end and is used for hunting small
game or birds, and is designed to not pierce the target nor embed itself in
trees or other objects and make recovery difficult. Another type of arrowhead is
a barbed head, usually used in warfare or hunting.
Bowstrings
Bowstrings may have a nocking point marked on them, which serves to mark
where the arrow is fitted to the bowstring before firing. The area around the
nocking point is usually bound with thread to protect the area around the
nocking point from wear by the archer’s hands. This section is called the
serving. At one end of the bowstring a loop is formed, which is permanent. The
other end of the bowstring also has a loop, but this is not permanently formed
into the bowstring but is constructed by tying a knot into the string to form a
loop. Traditionally this knot is known as the archer’s knot, but is a form of
the timber hitch
. The knot can be adjusted to
lengthen or shorten the bowstring. The adjustable loop is known as the “tail”.
Bowstrings have been constructed of many materials throughout history,
including fibres such as
flax, silk
, and
hemp. Other materials used were animal
guts
, animal
sinews
, and
rawhide
. Modern fibres such as
Dacron
or
Kevlar
are now used in bowstring construction,
as well as steel wires in some compound bows.
Compound bows
have a mechanical system of
pulley cams over which the bowstring is wound.
Types of bows
There is no one accepted system of classification of bows. Some systems
classify bows as either longbows or composite bows. In this system, a longbow is
any bow that is made from one material. Composite bows are made from two or more
layers of different materials. Other classifications divide bows into three
types — simple, backed, and composite. In this scheme, simple bows are made of
one material, backed bows are made of two layers, which could be similar or
different materials. Composite bows are made of three different layers, usually
different materials, but occasionally two of the layers are made from the same
material.
Common types of bow include
-
Recurve bow
: a bow with the tips curving
away from the archer. The curves straighten out as the bow is drawn and the
return of the tip to its curved state after release of the arrow adds extra
velocity to the arrow.
-
Reflex bow
: a bow that curves completely
away from the archer when unstrung. The curves are opposite to the direction
in which the bow flexes while drawn.
- Self bow
: a bow made from one piece of
wood.
- Longbow
: a self bow that is usually quite
long, often over 5 feet (1.5 metres) long. The traditional
English longbow
was usually made of
yew
wood, but other woods are used also.
-
Composite bow
: a bow made of more than one
material
-
Compound
: a bow with mechanical aids to
help with drawing the bowstring. Usually, these aids are pulleys at the tips
of the limbs.
Crossbow
In a crossbow
, the limbs of the bow, called a
prod, are attached at right angles to a crosspiece or
stock
in order to allow for mechanical pulling
and holding of the string. The mechanism that holds the drawn string has a
release or trigger that allows the string to be released. A crossbow shoots a
“bolt” rather than an arrow.
Alexander III of Macedon (20/21 July 356 – 10/11 June 323 BC),
commonly known as Alexander the Great from the Greek alexo “to
defend, help” + aner “man”), was a king of
Macedon
, a state in northern
ancient Greece
. Born in
Pella
in 356 BC, Alexander was tutored by
Aristotle
until the age of 16. By the age of
thirty, he had created one of the
largest empires
of the
ancient world
, stretching from the
Ionian Sea
to the
Himalayas
.He was undefeated in battle and is
considered one of history’s most successful commanders.
Alexander
succeeded his father,
Philip II of Macedon
, to the throne in 336 BC
after Philip was assassinated. Upon Philip’s death, Alexander inherited a strong
kingdom and an experienced army. He was awarded the generalship of Greece and
used this authority to launch his father’s military expansion plans. In 334 BC,
he invaded
Persian
-ruled
Asia Minor
and began a
series of campaigns
that lasted ten years.
Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of decisive battles, most
notably the battles of
Issus
and
Gaugamela
. He subsequently overthrew the
Persian King
Darius III
and conquered the entirety of the
Persian Empire
. At that point, his empire
stretched from the
Adriatic Sea
to the
Indus River
.
Seeking to reach the “ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea”, he
invaded India
in 326 BC, but was eventually
forced to turn back at the demand of his troops. Alexander died in
Babylon
in 323 BC, without executing a series
of planned campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of
Arabia
. In the years following his death, a
series of civil wars tore his empire apart, resulting in several states ruled by
the Diadochi
, Alexander’s surviving generals and
heirs.
Alexander’s legacy includes the
cultural diffusion
his conquests engendered. He
founded some
twenty cities that bore his name
, most notably
Alexandria
in Egypt. Alexander’s settlement of
Greek colonists and the resulting spread of Greek culture in the east resulted
in a new
Hellenistic civilization
, aspects of which were
still evident in the traditions of the
Byzantine Empire
in the mid-15th century.
Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mold of
Achilles
, and he features prominently in the
history and myth of Greek and non-Greek cultures. He became the measure against
which military leaders compared themselves, and
military academies
throughout the world still
teach his tactics.
Early life
Lineage and childhood
Alexander was born on the 6th day of the ancient Greek month of
Hekatombaion
, in
Pella
, the capital of the
Ancient Greek
Kingdom of Macedon
.He was the son of the king
of Macedon,
Philip II
, and his fourth wife,
Olympias
, the daughter of
Neoptolemus I
, king of
Epirus
. Although Philip had seven or eight
wives, Olympias was his principal wife for some time, likely a result of giving
birth to Alexander.
Philip II
of Macedon
, Alexander’s father.
On the day that Alexander was born, Philip was preparing a
siege
on the city of
Potidea
on the peninsula of
Chalcidice
. That same day, Philip received news
that his general
Parmenion
had defeated the combined
Illyrian
and
Paeonian
armies, and that his horses had won at
the
Olympic Games
. It was also said that on this
day, the
Temple of Artemis
in
Ephesus
, one of the
Seven Wonders of the World
, burnt down. This
led
Hegesias of Magnesia
to say that it had burnt
down because Artemis
was away, attending the birth of
Alexander.
Bust of a young Alexander the Great from the Hellenistic era,
British
Museum
In his early years, Alexander was raised by a nurse,
Lanike
, sister of Alexander’s future general
Cleitus the Black
. Later in his childhood,
Alexander was tutored by the strict
Leonidas
, a relative of his mother, and by
Philip’s general
Lysimachus
. Alexander was raised in the manner
of noble Macedonian youths, learning to read, play the
lyre, ride, fight, and hunt.
When Alexander was ten years old, a trader from
Thessaly
brought Philip a horse, which he
offered to sell for thirteen
talents
. The horse refused to be mounted and
Philip ordered it away. Alexander however, detecting the horse’s fear of its own
shadow, asked to tame the horse, which he eventually managed. Philip, overjoyed
at this display of courage and ambition, kissed his son tearfully, declaring:
“My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too
small for you”, and bought the horse for him.Alexander named it
Bucephalas
, meaning “ox-head”. Bucephalas
carried Alexander as far as
Pakistan
. When the animal died at age thirty,
Alexander named a city after him,
Bucephala
.
When Alexander was 13, Philip began to search for a
tutor
, chose
Aristotle
and provided the Temple of the Nymphs
at Mieza
as a classroom. In return for teaching
Alexander, Philip agreed to rebuild Aristotle’s hometown of
Stageira
, which Philip had razed, and to
repopulate it by buying and freeing the ex-citizens who were slaves, or
pardoning those who were in exile.
Mieza was like a boarding school for Alexander and the children of Macedonian
nobles, such as
Ptolemy
,
Hephaistion
, and
Cassander
. Many of these students would become
his friends and future generals, and are often known as the ‘Companions’.
Aristotle taught Alexander and his companions about medicine, philosophy,
morals, religion, logic, and art. Under Aristotle’s tutelage, Alexander
developed a passion for the works of
Homer
, and in particular the
Iliad
; Aristotle gave him an annotated
copy, which Alexander later carried on his campaigns.
At age 16, Alexander’s education under Aristotle ended. Philip waged war
against Byzantion
, leaving Alexander in charge as
regent
and
heir apparent
. During Philip’s absence, the
Thracian
Maedi
revolted against Macedonia. Alexander
responded quickly, driving them from their territory. He colonized it with
Greeks, and founded a city named
Alexandropolis
.
Upon Philip’s return, he dispatched Alexander with a small force to subdue
revolts in southern Thrace
. Campaigning against the Greek city of
Perinthus
, Alexander is reported to have saved
his father’s life. Meanwhile, the city of
Amphissa
began to work lands that were sacred
to Apollo
near
Delphi
, a sacrilege that gave Philip the
opportunity to further intervene in Greek affairs. Still occupied in Thrace, he
ordered Alexander to muster an army for a campaign in Greece. Concerned that
other Greek states might intervene, Alexander made it look as though he was
preparing to attack Illyria instead. During this turmoil, the Illyrians invaded
Macedonia, only to be repelled by Alexander.
Philip and his army joined his son in 338 BC, and they marched south through
Thermopylae
, taking it after stubborn
resistance from its Theban garrison. They went on to occupy the city of
Elatea
, only a few days’ march from both Athens
and Thebes. The Athenians, led by
Demosthenes
, voted to seek alliance with Thebes
against Macedonia. Both Athens and Philip sent embassies to win Thebes’ favor,
but Athens won the contest.Philip marched on Amphissa (ostensibly acting on the
request of the
Amphictyonic League
), capturing the mercenaries
sent there by
Demosthenes
and accepting the city’s surrender.
Philip then returned to Elatea, sending a final offer of peace to Athens and
Thebes, who both rejected it.
As Philip marched south, his opponents blocked him near
Chaeronea
,
Boeotia
. During the ensuing
Battle of Chaeronea
, Philip commanded the right
wing and Alexander the left, accompanied by a group of Philip’s trusted
generals. According to the ancient sources, the two sides fought bitterly for
some time. Philip deliberately commanded his troops to retreat, counting on the
untested Athenian
hoplites
to follow, thus breaking their line.
Alexander was the first to break the Theban lines, followed by Philip’s
generals. Having damaged the enemy’s cohesion, Philip ordered his troops to
press forward and quickly routed them. With the Athenians lost, the Thebans were
surrounded. Left to fight alone, they were defeated.
After the victory at Chaeronea, Philip and Alexander marched unopposed into
the Peloponnese, welcomed by all cities; however, when they reached
Sparta
, they were refused, but did not resort
to war.At
Corinth
, Philip established a “Hellenic
Alliance” (modeled on the old
anti-Persian alliance
of the
Greco-Persian Wars
), which included most Greek
city-states except Sparta. Philip was then named
Hegemon
(often translated as “Supreme
Commander”) of this league (known by modern scholars as the
League of Corinth
), and announced his plans to
attack the
Persian Empire
.
When Philip returned to Pella, he fell in love with and married
Cleopatra Eurydice
, the niece of his general
Attalus
. The marriage made Alexander’s position
as heir less secure, since any son of Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully
Macedonian heir, while Alexander was only half-Macedonian.
Alexander fled Macedon with his mother, dropping her off with her brother,
King
Alexander I of Epirus
in
Dodona
, capital of the
Molossians
.He continued to Illyria, where he
sought refuge with the Illyrian King and was treated as a guest, despite having
defeated them in battle a few years before. However, it appears Philip never
intended to disown his politically and militarily trained son. Accordingly,
Alexander returned to Macedon after six months due to the efforts of a family
friend,
Demaratus
, who mediated between the two
parties.
In 336 BC, while at
Aegae
attending the wedding of his daughter
Cleopatra
to Olympias’s brother,
Alexander I of Epirus
, Philip was assassinated
by the captain of his
bodyguards
,
Pausanias
. As Pausanias tried to escape, he
tripped over a vine and was killed by his pursuers, including two of Alexander’s
companions, Perdiccas
and
Leonnatus
. Alexander was proclaimed king by the
nobles and
army
at the age of 20.
Alexander began his reign by eliminating potential rivals to the throne. He
had his cousin, the former
Amyntas IV
, executed. He also had two
Macedonian princes from the region of
Lyncestis
killed, but spared a third,
Alexander Lyncestes
. Olympias had Cleopatra
Eurydice and Europa, her daughter by Philip, burned alive. When Alexander
learned about this, he was furious. Alexander also ordered the murder of
Attalus, who was in command of the advance guard of the army in Asia Minor and
Cleopatra’s uncle.
News of Philip’s death roused many states into revolt, including Thebes,
Athens, Thessaly, and the Thracian tribes north of Macedon. When news of the
revolts reached Alexander, he responded quickly. Though advised to use
diplomacy, Alexander mustered the Macedonian cavalry of 3,000 and rode south
towards Thessaly. He found the Thessalian army occupying the pass between
Mount Olympus
and
Mount Ossa
, and ordered his men to ride over
Mount Ossa. When the Thessalians awoke the next day, they found Alexander in
their rear and promptly surrendered, adding their cavalry to Alexander’s force.
He then continued south towards the
Peloponnese
.
Alexander stopped at Thermopylae, where he was recognized as the leader of
the Amphictyonic League before heading south to
Corinth
. Athens sued for peace and Alexander
pardoned the rebels. The famous
encounter between Alexander and Diogenes the Cynic
occurred during Alexander’s stay in Corinth. When Alexander asked Diogenes what
he could do for him, the philosopher disdainfully asked Alexander to stand a
little to the side, as he was blocking the sunlight. This reply apparently
delighted Alexander, who is reported to have said “But verily, if I were not
Alexander, I would like to be Diogenes.” At Corinth Alexander took the title of
Hegemon (“leader”), and like Philip, was appointed commander for the
coming war against Persia. He also received news of a Thracian uprising.
Alexander’s army crossed the
Hellespont
in 334 BC with approximately 48,100
soldiers, 6,100 cavalry and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering
38,000,drawn from Macedon and various Greek city-states, mercenaries, and
feudally raised soldiers from
Thrace
,
Paionia
, and
Illyria
. He showed his intent to conquer the
entirety of the Persian Empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying he
accepted Asia as a gift from the gods. This also showed Alexander’s eagerness to
fight, in contrast to his father’s preference for diplomacy.
After an initial victory against Persian forces at the
Battle of the Granicus
, Alexander accepted the
surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of
Sardis
; he then proceeded along the
Ionian
coast. Though Alexander believed in his
divine right to expend the lives of men in battle, he did experience sorrow, as
those who died were rewarded generously. He did not directly influence the
culture of the Persians they did not feel the need to begin a rebellion as their
men and rulers were treated with proper respect.
The Levant and Syria
Alexander journeyed south but was met by Darius’ significantly larger army
which he easily defeated, causing Darius to panic. Although he was chased by
some troops ‘Alexander treated them (his family) with the respect out of
consideration’ which demonstrated his continued generosity and kindness towards
those he conquered.Darius fled the battle, causing his army to collapse, and
left behind his wife, his two daughters, his mother
Sisygambis
, and a fabulous treasure.He offered
a peace treaty
that included the lands he had
already lost, and a ransom of 10,000
talents
for his family. Alexander replied that
since he was now king of Asia, it was he alone who decided territorial
divisions.
Alexander proceeded to take possession of
Syria
, and most of the coast of the
Levant
. In the following year, 332 BC, he was
forced to attack
Tyre
, which he captured after a long and
difficult
siege
.Alexander massacred the men of military
age and sold the women and children into
slavery
.
Egypt
When Alexander destroyed Tyre, most of the towns on the route to Egypt
quickly capitulated, with the exception of
Gaza. The stronghold at Gaza was heavily fortified and built on a
hill, requiring a siege. Alexander came upon the city only to be met with a
surprising resistance and fortification. When ‘his engineers pointed out to him
that because of the height of the mound it would be impossible… this encouraged
Alexander all the more to make the attempt’ . The divine right that Alexander
believed he had gave him confidence of a miracle occurring. After three
unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold fell, but not before Alexander had
received a serious shoulder wound. As in Tyre, men of military age were put to
the sword and the women and children sold into slavery.
Jerusalem instead opened its gates in surrender, and according to
Josephus
, Alexander was shown the
Book of Daniel
‘s prophecy, presumably chapter
8, which described a mighty Greek king who would conquer the Persian Empire. He
spared Jerusalem and pushed south into Egypt.
Alexander advanced on Egypt in later 332 BC, where he was regarded as a
liberator. He was pronounced the new “master of the Universe” and son of the
deity of Amun
at the
Oracle
of
Siwa Oasis
in the
Libyan
desert.Henceforth, Alexander often
referred to
Zeus-Ammon
as his true father, and subsequent
currency depicted him adorned with rams horn as a symbol of his divinity. During
his stay in Egypt, he founded
Alexandria-by-Egypt
, which would become the
prosperous capital of the
Ptolemaic Kingdom
after his death.
Bust of
Alexander
the Great
as Helios (Musei
Capitolini)
Assyria and Babylonia
Leaving Egypt in 331 BC, Alexander marched eastward into
Mesopotamia
(now northern
Iraq) and again defeated Darius, at the
Battle of Gaugamela
. Darius once more fled the
field, and Alexander chased him as far as
Arbela
. Gaugamela would be the final and
decisive encounter between the two. Darius fled over the mountains to
Ecbatana
(modern
Hamedan
), while Alexander captured
Babylon
.
Persia
From Babylon, Alexander went to
Susa, one of the
Achaemenid
capitals, and captured its legendary
treasury. He sent the bulk of his army to the Persian ceremonial capital of
Persepolis
via the
Royal Road
. Alexander himself took selected
troops on the direct route to the city. He had to storm the pass of the
Persian Gates
(in the modern
Zagros Mountains
) which had been blocked by a
Persian army under
Ariobarzanes
and then hurried to Persepolis
before its garrison could loot the treasury.
Alexander fighting the Persian king
Darius III
.
From
Alexander Mosaic
,
Naples National
Archaeological Museum
On entering Persepolis, Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for
several days.Alexander stayed in Persepolis for five months. During his stay a
fire broke out in the eastern palace of
Xerxes
and spread to the rest of the city.
Possible causes include a drunken accident or deliberate revenge for the burning
of the
Acropolis of Athens
during the
Second Persian War
.
Fall of the
Empire and the East
Alexander then chased Darius, first into Media, and then Parthia.The Persian
king no longer controlled his own destiny, and was taken prisoner by
Bessus
, his
Bactrian
satrap and kinsman.As Alexander
approached, Bessus had his men fatally stab the Great King and then declared
himself Darius’ successor as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia
to launch a
guerrilla
campaign against Alexander. Alexander
buried Darius’ remains next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a regal funeral.He
claimed that, while dying, Darius had named him as his successor to the
Achaemenid throne. The Achaemenid Empire is normally considered to have fallen
with Darius.
Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him.
This campaign, initially against Bessus, turned into a grand tour of central
Asia. Alexander founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including
modern Kandahar
in Afghanistan, and
Alexandria Eschate
(“The Furthest”) in modern
Tajikistan
. The campaign took Alexander through
Media
,
Parthia
,
Aria
(West Afghanistan),
Drangiana
,
Arachosia
(South and Central Afghanistan),
Bactria
(North and Central Afghanistan), and
Scythia
.
Spitamenes
, who held an undefined position in
the satrapy of Sogdiana, in 329 BC betrayed Bessus to
Ptolemy
, one of Alexander’s trusted companions,
and Bessus was executed. However, when, at some point later, Alexander was on
the Jaxartes
dealing with an incursion by a horse
nomad army, Spitamenes raised Sogdiana in revolt. Alexander personally defeated
the Scythians at the
Battle of Jaxartes
and immediately launched a
campaign against Spitamenes, defeating him in the Battle of Gabai. After the
defeat, Spitamenes was killed by his own men, who then sued for peace.The empire
began falling as military leaders and eventually Alexander died.
Problems and plots
During this time, Alexander took the Persian title “King of Kings” (Shahanshah)
and adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the
custom of
proskynesis
, either a symbolic kissing of
the hand, or prostration on the ground, that Persians showed to their social
superiors. The Greeks regarded the gesture as the province of
deities
and believed that Alexander meant to
deify himself by requiring it. This cost him the sympathies of many of his
countrymen, and he eventually abandoned it.
A plot against his life was revealed, and one of his officers,
Philotas
, was executed for failing to alert
Alexander. The death of the son necessitated the death of the father, and thus
Parmenion
, who had been charged with guarding
the treasury at Ecbatana
, was assassinated at Alexander’s
command, to prevent attempts at vengeance. Most infamously, Alexander personally
killed the man who had saved his life at Granicus,
Cleitus the Black
, during a violent drunken
altercation at
Maracanda
(modern day
Samarkand
in
Uzbekistan
), in which Cleitus accused Alexander
of several judgemental mistakes and most especially, of having forgot the
Macedonian ways in favour of a corrupt oriental lifestyle.
Macedon in
Alexander’s absence
When Alexander set out for Asia, he left his general
Antipater
, an experienced military and
political leader and part of Philip II’s “Old Guard”, in charge of Macedon.
Alexander’s sacking of Thebes ensured that Greece remained quiet during his
absence. The one exception was a call to arms by Spartan king
Agis III
in 331 BC, whom Antipater defeated and
killed in battle at
Megalopolis
the following year. Antipater
referred the Spartans’ punishment to the League of Corinth, which then deferred
to Alexander, who chose to pardon them. There was also considerable friction
between Antipater and Olympias, and each complained to Alexander about the
other.
In general, Greece enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity during
Alexander’s campaign in Asia. Alexander sent back vast sums from his conquest,
which stimulated the economy and increased trade across his empire.However,
Alexander’s constant demands for troops and the migration of Macedonians
throughout his empire depleted Macedon’s manpower, greatly weakening it in the
years after Alexander, and ultimately led to its subjugation by Rome.
Indian campaign
After the death of
Spitamenes
and his marriage to Roxana (Roshanak
in
Bactrian
) to cement relations with his new
satrapies, Alexander turned to the
Indian subcontinent
. He invited the
chieftains
of the former satrapy of
Gandhara
, in the north of what is now
Pakistan
, to come to him and submit to his
authority.
Omphis
, ruler of
Taxila
, whose kingdom extended from the
Indus
to the
Hydaspes
, complied, but the chieftains of some
hill clans, including the
Aspasioi
and
Assakenoi
sections of the
Kambojas
(known in Indian texts also as
Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas), refused to submit.In the winter of 327/326 BC,
Alexander personally led a campaign against these clans; the Aspasioi of
Kunar
valleys
, the Guraeans of the
Guraeus
valley, and the Assakenoi of the
Swat
and
Buner
valleys.A fierce contest ensued with the
Aspasioi in which Alexander was wounded in the shoulder by a dart, but
eventually the Aspasioi lost. Alexander then faced the Assakenoi, who fought in
the strongholds of Massaga, Ora and
Aornos
.The fort of Massaga was reduced only
after days of bloody fighting, in which Alexander was wounded seriously in the
ankle.
After Aornos, Alexander crossed the Indus and fought and won an epic battle
against King Porus
, who ruled a region in the
Punjab
, in the
Battle of the Hydaspes
in 326 BC. Alexander was
impressed by Porus’s bravery, and made him an ally. He appointed Porus as
satrap, and added to Porus’ territory land that he did not previously own.
Choosing a local helped him control these lands so distant from Greece.Alexander
founded two cities on opposite sides of the
Hydaspes
river, naming one
Bucephala
, in honor of his horse, who died
around this time.The other was
Nicaea
(Victory) located at the site of modern
day Mong, Punjab
.
Revolt of the army
East of Porus’ kingdom, near the
Ganges River
, were the
Nanda Empire
of
Magadha
and further east the
Gangaridai Empire
of
Bengal
. Fearing the prospect of facing other
large armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, Alexander’s army mutinied at
the Hyphasis River
, refusing to march farther east.
This river thus marks the easternmost extent of Alexander’s conquests. Alexander
tried to persuade his soldiers to march farther, but his general
Coenus
pleaded with him to change his opinion
and return; the men, he said, “longed to again see their parents, their wives
and children, their homeland”. Alexander eventually agreed and turned south,
marching along the
Indus
. Along the way his army conquered the
Malli
clans (in modern day
Multan
) and other Indian tribes.
Alexander sent much of his army to
Carmania
(modern southern
Iran) with general
Craterus
, and commissioned a fleet to explore
the Persian Gulf
shore under his admiral
Nearchus
, while he led the rest back to Persia
through the more difficult southern route along the
Gedrosian Desert
and
Makran
(now part of southern Iran and
Pakistan).Alexander reached Susa in 324 BC, but not before losing many men to
the harsh desert.
Last years in Persia
Discovering that many of his
satraps
and military governors had misbehaved
in his absence, Alexander executed several of them as examples on his way to
Susa. As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers,
and announced that he would send over-aged and disabled veterans back to
Macedon, led by Craterus. His troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at
the town of Opis
. They refused to be sent away and
criticized his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of
Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units.
Death and succession
On either 10 or 11 June 323 BC, Alexander died in the palace of
Nebuchadnezzar II
, in
Babylon
, at age 32. Details of the death differ
slightly – Plutarch
‘s account is that roughly 14 days
before his death, Alexander entertained admiral
Nearchus
, and spent the night and next day
drinking with
Medius of Larissa
.He developed a fever, which
worsened until he was unable to speak. Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian and Justin
all mentioned the theory that Alexander was poisoned.
The strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days
passed between the start of his illness and his death; such long-acting poisons
were probably not available. In 2010, however, a new theory proposed that the
circumstances of his death were compatible with poisoning by water of the river
Styx (Mavroneri)
that contained
calicheamicin
, a dangerous compound produced by
bacteria
.
Several
natural causes
(diseases) have been suggested,
including malaria
and
typhoid fever
.
After death
Alexander’s body was laid in a gold anthropoid
sarcophagus
that was filled with honey, which
was in turn placed in a gold casket. While Alexander’s funeral cortege was on
its way to Macedon, Ptolemy stole it and took it to Memphis. His successor,
Ptolemy II Philadelphus
, transferred the
sarcophagus to Alexandria, where it remained until at least
late Antiquity
.
Ptolemy IX Lathyros
, one of Ptolemy’s final
successors, replaced Alexander’s sarcophagus with a glass one so he could
convert the original to coinage.
Pompey
,
Julius Caesar
and
Augustus
all visited the tomb in Alexandria.
Caligula
was said to have taken Alexander’s
breastplate from the tomb for his own use. In c. AD 200, Emperor
Septimius Severus
closed Alexander’s tomb to
the public. His son and successor,
Caracalla
, a great admirer, visited the tomb
during his own reign. After this, details on the fate of the tomb are hazy.
Division of the empire
Alexander’s death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached
Greece, they were not immediately believed.Alexander had no obvious or
legitimate heir, his son Alexander IV by Roxane being born after Alexander’s
death.According to Diodorus, Alexander’s companions asked him on his deathbed to
whom he bequeathed his kingdom; his laconic reply was “tôi kratistôi”—”to the
strongest”.
In 321 BC, Macedonian unity collapsed, and 40 years of war between “The
Successors” (Diadochi) ensued before the Hellenistic world settled into
four stable power blocks: the
Ptolemaic Kingdom
of Egypt, the
Seleucid Empire
in the east, the Kingdom of
Pergamon
in Asia Minor, and Macedon. In the
process, both Alexander IV and Philip III were murdered.
Character
Alexander earned the epithet “the Great” due to his unparalleled success as a
military commander. He never lost a battle, despite typically being
outnumbered.This was due to use of terrain,
phalanx
and cavalry tactics, bold strategy, and
the fierce loyalty of his troops.The
Macedonian phalanx
, armed with the
sarissa
, a spear 6 metres (20 ft) long, had
been developed and perfected by Philip II through rigorous training, and
Alexander used its speed and maneuverability to great effect against larger but
more disparate Persian forces.Alexander also recognized the potential for
disunity among his diverse army, which employed various languages and weapons.
He overcame this by being personally involved in battle,in the manner of a
Macedonian king.
When faced with opponents who used unfamiliar fighting techniques, such as in
Central Asia and India, Alexander adapted his forces to his opponents’ style.
Thus, in Bactria
and
Sogdiana
, Alexander successfully used his
javelin throwers and archers to prevent outflanking movements, while massing his
cavalry at the center. In India, confronted by Porus’ elephant corps, the
Macedonians opened their ranks to envelop the elephants and used their sarissas
to strike upwards and dislodge the elephants’ handlers.
Physical appearance:
Greek historian Arrian
described Alexander as:
The strong, handsome commander with one eye dark as the night and one
blue as the sky.
Alexander suffered from
heterochromia iridum
: that one eye was dark and
the other light.
Personality
Some of Alexander’s strongest personality traits formed in response to his
parents.His mother had huge ambitions, and encouraged him to believe it was his
destiny to conquer the Persian Empire. Olympias’ influence instilled a sense of
destiny in him, and Plutarch tells us that his ambition “kept his spirit serious
and lofty in advance of his years”. However, his father Philip was Alexander’s
most immediate and influential role model, as the young Alexander watched him
campaign practically every year, winning victory after victory while ignoring
severe wounds.Alexander’s relationship with his father forged the competitive
side of his personality; he had a need to out-do his father, illustrated by his
reckless behavior in battle. While Alexander worried that his father would leave
him “no great or brilliant achievement to be displayed to the world”, he also
downplayed his father’s achievements to his companions.
According to Plutarch, among Alexander’s traits were a violent temper and
rash, impulsive nature, which undoubtedly contributed to some of his decisions.
Although Alexander was stubborn and did not respond well to orders from his
father, he was open to reasoned debate. He had a calmer side—perceptive,
logical, and calculating. He had a great desire for knowledge, a love for
philosophy, and was an avid reader.This was no doubt in part due to Aristotle’s
tutelage; Alexander was intelligent and quick to learn. His intelligent and
rational side was amply demonstrated by his ability and success as a general.
Alexander was erudite and patronized both arts and sciences.However, he had
little interest in sports or the
Olympic games
(unlike his father), seeking only
the
Homeric
ideals of honor (timê) and glory
(kudos). He had great
charisma
and force of personality,
characteristics which made him a great leader. His unique abilities were further
demonstrated by the inability of any of his generals to unite Macedonia and
retain the Empire after his death – only Alexander had the ability to do so.
During his final years, and especially after the death of Hephaestion,
Alexander began to exhibit signs of
megalomania
and
paranoia
.His extraordinary achievements,
coupled with his own ineffable sense of destiny and the flattery of his
companions, may have combined to produce this effect.
He appears to have believed himself a deity, or at least sought to deify
himself. Olympias always insisted to him that he was the son of Zeus,a theory
apparently confirmed to him by the oracle of Amun at
Siwa
. He began to identify himself as the son
of Zeus-Ammon.Alexander adopted elements of Persian dress and customs at court,
notably
proskynesis
, a practice that Macedonians
disapproved, and were loath to perform. This behavior cost him the sympathies of
many of his countrymen.However, Alexander also was a pragmatic ruler who
understood the difficulties of ruling culturally disparate peoples, many of whom
lived in kingdoms where the king was divine.Thus, rather than megalomania, his
behavior may simply have been a practical attempt at strengthening his rule and
keeping his empire together.
Personal relationships
Alexander, left, and
Hephaestion
, right
The central personal relationship of Alexander’s life was with his friend,
general, and bodyguard
Hephaestion
, the son of a Macedonian
noble.Hephaestion’s death devastated Alexander.This event may have contributed
to Alexander’s failing health and detached
mental state
during his final months.
Alexander married twice:
Roxana
, daughter of the
Bactrian
nobleman
Oxyartes
, out of love; and
Stateira II
, a Persian princess and daughter of
Darius III
of Persia, for political reasons. He
apparently had two sons, Alexander IV of Macedon of Roxana and, possibly,
Heracles of Macedon
from his mistress Barsine.
He lost another child when Roxana miscarried at Babylon.
Alexander’s sexuality has been the subject of speculation and controversy. No
ancient sources stated that Alexander had
homosexual
relationships, or that Alexander’s
relationship with Hephaestion was sexual. Aelian, however, writes of Alexander’s
visit to Troy
where “Alexander garlanded the tomb of
Achilles and Hephaestion that of
Patroclus
, the latter riddling that he was a
beloved of Alexander, in just the same way as Patroclus was of Achilles”. Noting
that the word
eromenos
(ancient Greek for beloved) does
not necessarily bear sexual meaning, Alexander may have been bisexual, which in
his time was not controversial.
Influence on Rome
Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans, especially generals,
who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements.
Pompey the Great
adopted the epithet “Magnus”
and even Alexander’s anatole-type haircut, and searched the conquered lands of
the east for Alexander’s 260-year-old cloak, which he then wore as a sign of
greatness.
Julius Caesar
dedicated a
Lysippean
equestrian
bronze
statue but replaced Alexander’s head
with his own, while
Octavian
visited Alexander’s tomb in Alexandria
and temporarily changed his seal from a
sphinx
to Alexander’s profile. The emperor
Trajan
also admired Alexander, as did
Nero and
Caracalla
.The Macriani, a Roman family that in
the person of Macrinus
briefly ascended to the imperial
throne, kept images of Alexander on their persons, either on jewelry, or
embroidered into their clothes.
Alexander the Great’s accomplishments and legacy have been depicted in many
cultures. Alexander has figured in both high and popular culture beginning in
his own era to the present day. The Alexander Romance, in particular, has
had a significant impact on portrayals of Alexander in later cultures, from
Persian to medieval European to modern Greek.
Hercules is the Roman name for the Greek
divine
hero Heracles
, who was the son of
Zeus (Roman equivalent
Jupiter
) and the mortal
Alcmene
. In
classical mythology
, Hercules is famous for his
strength and for his numerous far-ranging adventures.
The Romans adapted the Greek hero’s iconography and myths for their
literature and art under the name Hercules. In later
Western art
and literature and in
popular culture
, Hercules is more
commonly used than Heracles as the name of the hero. Hercules was a
multifaceted figure with contradictory characteristics, which enabled later
artists and writers to pick and choose how to represent him. This article
provides an introduction to representations of Hercules in the
later tradition
.
Labours
Hercules is known for his many adventures, which took him to the far reaches
of the
Greco-Roman world
. One cycle of these
adventures became
canonical
as the “Twelve Labours,” but the list
has variations. One traditional order of the labours is found in the
Bibliotheca
as follows:
- Slay the
Nemean Lion
.
- Slay the nine-headed
Lernaean Hydra
.
- Capture the
Golden Hind of Artemis
.
- Capture the
Erymanthian Boar
.
- Clean the Augean
stables in a single day.
- Slay the
Stymphalian Birds
.
- Capture the
Cretan Bull
.
- Steal the
Mares of Diomedes
.
- Obtain the girdle of
Hippolyta
, Queen of the
Amazons
.
- Obtain the cattle of the monster
Geryon
.
- Steal the apples of the
Hesperides
.
- Capture and bring back
Cerberus
.
- The Latin
name Hercules was borrowed
through
Etruscan
, where it is represented variously
as Heracle
, Hercle, and other forms. Hercules
was a favorite subject for
Etruscan art
, and appears often on
bronze mirrors
. The Etruscan form
Herceler derives from the Greek Heracles via
syncope
. A mild oath invoking Hercules (Hercule!
or Mehercle!) was a common
interjection
in
Classical Latin
.
Baby Hercules strangling a
snake
sent to kill him in his
cradle
(Roman marble, 2nd
century CE)
Hercules had a number of
myths
Cacus, who was terrorizing the countryside
of Rome. The hero was associated with the
Aventine Hill
through his son
Aventinus
.
Mark Antony
considered him a personal
patron god, as did the emperor
Commodus
. Hercules received various forms
of
religious veneration
, including as a
deity concerned with children and childbirth
,
in part because of myths about his precocious infancy, and in part because
he fathered countless children. Roman brides wore a special belt tied with
the “knot
of Hercules“, which was supposed to be hard to untie.[4]
The comic playwright
Plautus
presents the myth of Hercules’
conception as a sex comedy in his play
Amphitryon
;
Seneca
wrote the tragedy Hercules Furens
about his bout with madness. During the
Roman Imperial era
, Hercules was worshipped
locally from
Hispania
through
Gaul
.
Medieval mythography
After the Roman Empire became
Christianized
, mythological narratives were
often reinterpreted as
allegory
, influenced by the philosophy of
late antiquity
. In the 4th century,
Servius
had described Hercules’ return from the
underworld as representing his ability to overcome earthly desires and vices, or
the earth itself as a consumer of bodies.[6]
In medieval mythography, Hercules was one of the heroes seen as a strong role
model who demonstrated both valor and wisdom, with the monsters he battles as
moral obstacles. One
glossatorr
noted that when
Hercules became a constellation
, he showed that
strength was necessary to gain entrance to Heaven.[8]
Renaissance
mythography
The Renaissance
and the invention of the
printing press
brought a renewed interest in
and publication of Greek literature. Renaissance mythography drew more
extensively on the Greek tradition of Heracles, typically under the Romanized
name Hercules, or the alternate name
Alcides
. In a chapter of his book
Mythologiae (1567), the influential mythographer
Natale Conti
collected and summarized an
extensive range of myths concerning the birth, adventures, and death of the hero
under his Roman name Hercules. Conti begins his lengthy chapter on Hercules with
an overview description that continues the moralizing impulse of the Middle
Ages::
Hercules, who subdued and destroyed monsters, bandits, and criminals, was
justly famous and renowned for his great courage. His great and glorious
reputation was worldwide, and so firmly entrenched that he’ll always be
remembered. In fact the ancients honored him with his own temples, altars,
ceremonies, and priests. But it was his wisdom and great soul that earned
those honors; noble blood, physical strength, and political power just
aren’t good enough.[
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