DOMITIAN 81AD Amphipolis Macedonia Artemis Tauropolos Ancient Roman Coin i55625

Item: i55625

 Authentic Ancient 

Coin of:

Emperor: 81-96 A.D. –

Bronze 21mm (7.50 grams) of

Macedonia
Reference: RPC II 339
AYT KAICAP ΔOMITIANOC, Laureate head right.
ΑΜΦΙΠΟΛΙTΩΝ, Artemis Tauropolos standing left, holding torch and branch; shield 
to right.

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Authenticity.

Artemis was one of 
the most widely venerated of the Ancient Greek deities. Some scholars believe 
that the name, and indeed the goddess herself, was originally pre-Greek. Homer 
refers to her as Artemis Agrotera,
Potnia Theron
“Artemis of the wildland, 
Mistress of Animals”. In the classical period of
Greek mythology
, Artemis (Greek: 
(nominative)
Ἄρτεμις, (genitive)
Ἀρτέμιδος) was often 
described as the daughter of

Zeus and Leto
, and the twin sister of
Apollo
. She was the Hellenic goddess of the 
hunt, wild animals, wilderness, childbirth, virginity and young girls, bringing 
and relieving disease in women; she often was depicted as a huntress carrying a 
bow and arrows. The deer
and the
cypress
were sacred to her. In later 
Hellenistic times, she even assumed the ancient role of
Eileithyia
in aiding childbirth.

Artemis later became identified with
Selene
, a
Titaness
who was a Greek moon goddess, 
sometimes depicted with a crescent moon above her head. She was also identified 
with the Roman goddess
Diana
, with the
Etruscan
goddess
Artume
, and with the Greek or
Carian
goddess
Hecate
.

Amphipolis 
is a municipality in the
Serres regional unit
of
Greece
. The seat of the municipality is
Rodolivos
and historical seat of the
First
. Amphipolis was a rich
city (polis)
in
ancient Macedonia
. It was famous for events 
such as the battle of the Spartans and Athenians in 424BC, and as the place 
where
Alexander the Great
prepared for campaigns 
leading to his invasion of Asia. Alexander’s three finest admirals,
Nearchus
, Androsthenes and Laomedon, resided 
here and after Alexander’s death, his wife
Roxane
and their small son
Alexander IV
were exiled and later murdered 
here.

The unique and beautiful “Lion of Amphipolis” monument nearby is a well-known 
destination for visitors. Partial excavations in the city have so far revealed 
important ancient walls, buildings and tombs. At the nearby vast
Kasta burial mound
, an important ancient 
Macedonian tomb
has recently been revealed.

Domitian – 81-96 A.D.

69-71 A.D. – Caesar (under

Vespasian, with

Titus)
71-79 A.D. – Caesar (under

Vespasian,

Titus as Imperator)
79-81 A.D. – Caesar (under

Titus)
81-96 A.D. – Sole Reign

Son of
Vespasian
and Domitilla the Elder | Brother of
Titus
and Domitilla the Younger | Husband of
Domitia
| Father of a deified son and a daughter, names unkown | Uncle of
Julia Titi
| Adoptive father and great-uncle of
Vespasian Junior
|

Domitian (Latin:
Titus Flavius Caesar Domitianus Augustus;24 
October 51 – 18 September 96) was
Roman Emperor
from 81 to 96. Domitian was the 
third and last emperor of the
Flavian dynasty
.

Domitian’s youth and early career were largely spent in the shadow of his 
brother Titus
, who gained military renown during the
First Jewish-Roman War
. This situation 
continued under the rule of his father
Vespasian
, who became emperor in 69 following 
the civil war
known as the
Year of the Four Emperors
. While Titus held a 
great many offices under the rule of his father, Domitian was left with honours 
but no responsibilities. Vespasian died in 79 and was succeeded by Titus, whose 
own reign came to an unexpected end when he was struck by a fatal illness in 81. 
The following day Domitian was declared Emperor by the
Praetorian Guard
, commencing a reign which 
lasted fifteen years – longer than any man who had ruled since
Tiberius
.
As Emperor, Domitian strengthened the economy by revaluing the
Roman coinage
, expanded the border defenses of 
the Empire, and initiated a massive building program to restore the damaged city 
of Rome
. Significant wars were fought in Britain, 
where his general
Agricola
attempted to conquer
Caledonia
(Scotland), 
and in Dacia
, where Domitian was unable to procure a 
decisive victory against king
Decebalus
. Domitian’s government exhibited
totalitarian
characteristics; he saw himself as 
the new Augustus
, an enlightened despot destined to 
guide the Roman Empire into a new era of brilliance. Religious, military, and 
cultural propaganda
fostered a
cult of personality
, and by nominating himself 
perpetual
censor
, he sought to control public and private 
morals. As a consequence, Domitian was popular with the people and army but 
considered a tyrant by members of the
Roman Senate
. According to
Suetonius
, he was the first Roman Emperor who 
had demanded to be addressed as dominus et deus (master and god).

Domitian’s reign came to an end in 96 when he was assassinated by court 
officials. The same day he was succeeded by his advisor
Nerva
. After his death, Domitian’s memory was
condemned to oblivion
by the Roman Senate, 
while senatorial authors such as
Tacitus
,
Pliny the Younger
and
Suetonius
published histories propagating the 
view of Domitian as a cruel and paranoid tyrant. Modern history has rejected 
these views, instead characterising Domitian as a ruthless but efficient 
autocrat, whose cultural, economic and political program provided the foundation 
of the peaceful 2nd century.

Early life

Family

Domitian was born in Rome
on 24 October 51, the youngest son of
Titus Flavius Vespasianus
—commonly known as 
Vespasian—and
Flavia Domitilla Major
. He had an older sister,
Domitilla the Younger
, and brother, also named
Titus Flavius Vespasianus
.

Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the 
demise of the old aristocracy of Rome, which a new Italian nobility gradually 
replaced in prominence during the early part of the 1st century. One such 
family, the Flavians, or gens
Flavia
, rose from relative obscurity to 
prominence in just four generations, acquiring wealth and status under the 
emperors of the
Julio-Claudian dynasty
. Domitian’s 
great-grandfather,
Titus Flavius Petro
, had served as a
centurion
under
Pompey
during
Caesar’s civil war
. His military career ended 
in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the
Battle of Pharsalus
in 48 BC.

Nevertheless, Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely 
wealthy Tertulla, whose fortune guaranteed the upwards mobility of Petro’s son
Titus Flavius Sabinus I
, Domitian’s 
grandfather. Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible
equestrian
status through his services as
tax collector
in Asia and banker in
Helvetia
(modern Switzerland). By marrying
Vespasia Polla
he allied himself to the more 
prestigious
patrician
gens Vespasia, ensuring the 
elevation of his sons
Titus Flavius Sabinus II
and Vespasian to
senatorial
rank.

The
political career
of Vespasian included the 
offices of quaestor
,
aedile
and
praetor
, and culminated with a
consulship
in 51, the year of Domitian’s birth. 
As a military commander, Vespasian gained early renown by participating in the
Roman invasion of Britain
in 43. Nevertheless, 
ancient sources allege poverty for the Flavian family at the time of Domitian’s 
upbringing, even claiming Vespasian had fallen into disrepute under the emperors
Caligula
(37–41) and
Nero (54–68). Modern history has refuted these claims, suggesting 
these stories later circulated under Flavian rule as part of a
propaganda
campaign to diminish success under 
the less reputable Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and to maximize 
achievements under Emperor Claudius (41–54) and his son
Britannicus
.

By all appearances, the Flavians enjoyed high imperial favour throughout the 
40s and 60s. While Titus received a court education in the company of 
Britannicus, Vespasian pursued a successful political and military career. 
Following a prolonged period of retirement during the 50s, he returned to public 
office under Nero, serving as
proconsul
of the
Africa province
in 63, and accompanying the 
emperor during an official tour of
Greece
in 66.

The same year the Jews of the
Judaea province
revolted against the Roman 
Empire in what is now known as the
First Jewish-Roman War
. Vespasian was assigned 
to lead the Roman army
against the insurgents, with Titus — 
who had completed his military education by this time — in charge of a legion.

Youth and character

By 6, Domitian’s mother and sister had long died, while his father and 
brother were continuously active in the Roman military, commanding armies in
Germania
and Judaea. For Domitian, this meant 
that a significant part of his adolescence was spent in the absence of his near 
relatives. During the Jewish-Roman wars, he was likely taken under the care of 
his uncle Titus Flavius Sabinus II, at the time serving as
city prefect
of Rome; or possibly even
Marcus Cocceius Nerva
, a loyal friend of the 
Flavians and the future successor to Domitian.

He received the education of a young man of the privileged senatorial class, 
studying rhetoric
and
literature
. In his biography in the
Lives of the Twelve Caesars
,
Suetonius
attests to Domitian’s ability to 
quote the important poets and writers such as
Homer
or
Virgil
on appropriate occasions, and describes 
him as a learned and educated adolescent, with elegant conversation. Among his 
first published works were
poetry
, as well as writings on law and 
administration.

Unlike his brother Titus, Domitian was not educated at court. Whether he 
received formal military training is not recorded, but according to Suetonius, 
he displayed considerable marksmanship with the bow and arrow. A detailed 
description of Domitian’s appearance and character is provided by Suetonius, who 
devotes a substantial part of his biography to his personality.

“He was tall of stature, with a modest expression and a high colour. His 
eyes were large, but his sight was somewhat dim. He was handsome and 
graceful too, especially when a young man, and indeed in his whole body with 
the exception of his feet, the toes of which were somewhat cramped. In later 
life he had the further disfigurement of baldness, a protruding belly, and 
spindling legs, though the latter had become thin from a long illness.”
 

Suetonius
,
De Vita Caesarum
, “Life of 
Domitian”, 18

Domitian was allegedly extremely sensitive regarding his baldness, which he 
disguised in later life by wearing wigs. According to Suetonius, he even wrote a 
book on the subject of
hair care
. With regard to Domitian’s 
personality, however, the account of Suetonius alternates sharply between 
portraying Domitian as the emperor-tyrant, a man both physically and 
intellectually lazy, and the intelligent, refined personality drawn elsewhere.

Historian
Brian Jones
concludes in The Emperor 
Domitian that assessing the true nature of Domitian’s personality is 
inherently complicated by the bias of the surviving sources. Common threads 
nonetheless emerge from the available evidence. He appears to have lacked the 
natural charisma of his brother and father. He was prone to suspicion, displayed 
an odd, sometimes
self-deprecating
sense of humour, and often 
communicated in cryptic ways.

This ambiguity of character was further exacerbated by his remoteness, and as 
he grew older, he increasingly displayed a preference for solitude, which may 
have stemmed from his isolated upbringing. Indeed, by the age of eighteen nearly 
all of his closest relatives had died by war or disease. Having spent the 
greater part of his early life in the twilight of Nero’s reign, his formative 
years would have been strongly influenced by the political turmoil of the 60s, 
culminating with the
civil war
of 69, which brought his family to 
power.

Rise of the 
Flavian dynasty

Year of the Four 
Emperors

On 9 June 68, amidst growing opposition of the
Senate
and the army, Nero committed
suicide
, and with him the Julio-Claudian 
dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued, leading to a year of brutal civil war 
known as the
Year of the Four Emperors
, during which the 
four most influential generals in the
Roman Empire
—Galba,
Otho,
Vitellius
and
Vespasian
—successively vied for imperial power.

News of Nero’s death reached Vespasian as he was preparing to besiege the 
city of Jerusalem
. Almost simultaneously the Senate had 
declared Galba, then governor of
Hispania Tarraconensis
(modern Spain), as 
Emperor of Rome. Rather than continue his campaign, Vespasian decided to await 
further orders and send Titus to greet the new Emperor.

Before reaching Italy, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced 
by Otho, the governor of
Lusitania
(modern Portugal). At the same time 
Vitellius and his armies in
Germania
had risen in revolt, and prepared to 
march on Rome, intent on overthrowing Otho. Not wanting to risk being taken 
hostage by one side or the other, Titus abandoned the journey to Rome and 
rejoined his father in Judaea.

Otho and Vitellius realised the potential threat posed by the Flavian 
faction. With four legions at his disposal, Vespasian commanded a strength of 
nearly 80,000 soldiers. His position in Judaea further granted him the advantage 
of being nearest to the vital
province of Egypt
, which controlled the
grain supply to Rome
. His brother Titus Flavius 
Sabinus II, as city prefect, commanded the entire
city garrison
of Rome. Tensions among the 
Flavian troops ran high, but so long as either Galba or Otho remained in power, 
Vespasian refused to take action.

When Otho was defeated by Vitellius at the
First Battle of Bedriacum
, the armies in Judaea 
and Egypt took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on 1 
July 69. 
Vespasian accepted, and entered an alliance with
Gaius Licinius Mucianus
, the governor of Syria, 
against Vitellius. A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions 
marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus, while Vespasian himself travelled 
to Alexandria
, leaving Titus in charge of ending 
the Jewish rebellion.

In Rome meanwhile, Domitian was placed under
house arrest
by Vitellius, as a safeguard 
against future Flavian aggression. Support for the old emperor was waning 
however, as more legions throughout the empire pledged their allegiance to 
Vespasian. On 24 October 69 the forces of Vitellius and Vespasian clashed at the
Second Battle of Bedriacum
, which ended in a 
crushing defeat for the armies of Vitellius.

In despair, he attempted to negotiate a surrender. Terms of peace, including 
a voluntary abdication, were agreed upon with Titus Flavius Sabinus II, 
but the soldiers of the
Praetorian Guard
—the imperial
bodyguard
—considered such a resignation 
disgraceful, and prevented Vitellius from carrying out the treaty. 
On the morning of 18 December, the emperor appeared to deposit the imperial 
insignia at the
Temple of Concord
, but at the last minute 
retraced his steps to the Imperial palace. In the confusion, the leading men of 
the state gathered at Sabinus’ house, proclaiming Vespasian as Emperor, but the 
multitude dispersed when Vitellian cohorts clashed with the armed escort of 
Sabinus, who was forced to retreat to the
Capitoline Hill
.

During the night, he was joined by his relatives, including Domitian. The 
armies of Mucianus were nearing Rome, but the besieged Flavian party did not 
hold out for longer than a day. On 19 December, Vitellianists burst onto the 
Capitol, and in the resulting skirmish, Sabinus was captured and executed. 
Domitian himself managed to escape by disguising himself as a worshipper of
Isis, and spent the night in safety with one of his father’s 
supporters.

By the afternoon of 20 December Vitellius was dead, his armies having been 
defeated by the Flavian legions. With nothing more to be feared from the enemy, 
Domitian came forward to meet the invading forces; he was universally saluted by 
the title of
Caesar
, and the mass of troops conducted 
him to his father’s house. 
The following day, 21 December, the Senate proclaimed Vespasian emperor of the 
Roman Empire.

Aftermath of the war

Although the war had officially ended, a state of
anarchy
and lawlessness pervaded in the first 
days following the demise of Vitellius. Order was properly restored by Mucianus 
in early 70 but Vespasian did not enter Rome until September of that year. In 
the meantime, Domitian acted as the representative of the Flavian family in the
Roman Senate
. He received the title of
Caesar and was appointed
praetor
with
consular
power.

The ancient historian
Tacitus
describes Domitian’s first speech in 
the Senate as brief and measured, at the same time noting his ability to elude 
awkward questions. Domitian’s authority was merely
nominal
, however, foreshadowing what was to be 
his role for at least ten more years. By all accounts, Mucianus held the real 
power in Vespasian’s absence and he was careful to ensure that Domitian, still 
only eighteen years old, did not overstep the boundaries of his function. Strict 
control was also maintained over the young Caesar’s
entourage
, promoting away Flavian generals such 
as Arrius Varus and
Antonius Primus
and replacing them by more 
reliable men such as
Arrecinus Clemens
.

Equally curtailed by Mucianus were Domitian’s military ambitions. The civil 
war of 69 had severely destabilized the provinces, leading to several local 
uprisings such as the
Batavian revolt
in
Gaul.
Batavian
auxiliaries of the
Rhine
legions, led by
Gaius Julius Civilis
, had rebelled with the aid 
of a faction of Treveri
under the command of
Julius Classicus
. Seven legions were sent from 
Rome, led by Vespasian’s brother-in-law
Quintus Petillius Cerialis
.

Although the revolt was quickly suppressed, exaggerated reports of disaster 
prompted Mucianus to depart the capital with reinforcements of his own. Domitian 
eagerly sought the opportunity to attain military glory and joined the other 
officers with the intention of commanding a legion of his own. According to 
Tacitus, Mucianus was not keen on this prospect but since he considered Domitian 
a liability in any capacity that was entrusted to him, he preferred to keep him 
close at hand rather than in Rome.

When news arrived of Cerialis’ victory over Civilis, Mucianus tactfully 
dissuaded Domitian from pursuing further military endeavours. Domitian then 
wrote to Cerialis personally, suggesting he hand over command of his army but, 
once again, he was snubbed. 
With the return of Vespasian in late September, his political role was rendered 
all but obsolete and Domitian withdrew from government devoting his time to arts 
and literature.

Marriage

Where his political and military career had ended in disappointment, 
Domitian’s private affairs were more successful. In 70 Vespasian attempted to 
arrange a dynastic marriage between his youngest son and the daughter of Titus,
Julia Flavia
, 
but Domitian was adamant in his love for
Domitia Longina
, going so far as to persuade 
her husband,
Lucius Aelius Lamia
, to divorce her so that 
Domitian could marry her himself.

A bust of
Domitia Longina
, with Flavian
hairstyle
, (Louvre).

Despite its initial recklessness, the alliance was very prestigious for both 
families. Domitia Longina was the younger daughter of
Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo
, a respected general 
and honoured politician. Following the failed
Pisonian conspiracy
against
Nero in 65, he had been forced to commit suicide. The new marriage 
not only re-established ties to senatorial opposition, but also served the 
broader Flavian propaganda of the time, which sought to diminish Vespasian’s 
political success under Nero. Instead connections to Claudius and Britannicus 
were emphasised, and Nero’s victims, or those otherwise disadvantaged by him, 
rehabilitated.

In 80, Domitia and Domitian’s only attested son was born. It is not known 
what the boy’s name was, but he died in childhood in 83. Shortly following his 
accession as Emperor, Domitian bestowed the honorific title of
Augusta
upon Domitia, while their son was
deified
, appearing as such on the
reverse
of coin types from this period. 
Nevertheless, the marriage appears to have faced a significant crisis in 83. For 
reasons unknown, Domitian briefly
exiled
Domitia, and then soon recalled her, 
either out of love or due to rumours that he was carrying on a relationship with 
his niece Julia Flavia. 
Jones argues that most likely he did so for her failure to produce an heir.

By 84, Domitia had returned to the palace, where she lived for the remainder 
of Domitian’s reign without incident. Little is known of Domitia’s activities as 
Empress, or how much influence she wielded in Domitian’s government, but it 
seems her role was limited. From Suetonius, we know that she at least 
accompanied the Emperor to the
amphitheatre
, while the
Jewish
writer
Josephus
speaks of benefits he received from 
her. It is not known whether Domitian had other children, but he did not marry 
again. Despite allegations by Roman sources of adultery and divorce, the 
marriage appears to have been happy.

Ceremonial heir 
(71-81)

Prior to becoming Emperor, Domitian’s role in the Flavian government was 
largely ceremonial. In June 71,
Titus
returned triumphant from the war in 
Judaea. Ultimately, the rebellion had claimed the lives of over 1 million 
people, a majority of whom were Jewish. The city and
temple of Jerusalem
were completely destroyed, 
its most valuable treasures carried off by the Roman army, and nearly 100,000 
people were captured and enslaved.

For his victory, the Senate awarded Titus a
Roman triumph
. On the day of the festivities, 
the Flavian family rode into the capital, preceded by a lavish parade which 
displayed the spoils of the war. The family procession was headed by Vespasian 
and Titus, while Domitian, riding a magnificent white horse, followed with the 
remaining Flavian relatives.

Leaders of the Jewish resistance were executed in the
Forum Romanum
, after which the procession 
closed with religious sacrifices at the
Temple of Jupiter
. A
triumphal arch
, the
Arch of Titus
, was erected at the south-east 
entrance to the Forum to commemorate the successful end of the war.

Yet the return of Titus further highlighted the comparative insignificance of 
Domitian, both militarily and politically. As the eldest and most experienced of 
Vespasian’s sons, Titus shared
tribunician power
with his father, received 
seven consulships
, the
censorship
, and was given
command
of the
Praetorian Guard
; powers which left no doubt he 
was the designated heir to the Empire. As a second son, Domitian held honorary 
titles, such as Caesar or Princeps Iuventutis, and several 
priesthoods, including those of
augur
,
pontifex
,
frater arvalis
, magister frater arvalium, 
and sacerdos collegiorum omnium, but no office with
imperium
.

He held six consulships during Vespasian’s reign but only one of these, in 
73, was an ordinary consulship. The other five were less prestigious
suffect consulships
, which he held in 71, 75, 
76, 77 and 79 respectively, usually replacing his father or brother in 
mid-January. 
While ceremonial, these offices no doubt gained Domitian valuable experience in 
the Roman Senate, and may have contributed to his later reservations about its 
relevance.

Under Vespasian and Titus, non-Flavians were virtually excluded from the 
important public offices. Mucianus himself all but disappeared from historical 
records during this time, and it is believed he died sometime between 75 and 77. 
Real power was unmistakably concentrated in the hands of the Flavian faction; 
the weakened Senate only maintained the facade of
democracy
.

Because Titus effectively acted as co-emperor with his father, no abrupt 
change in Flavian policy occurred when Vespasian died on 23 June 79. Titus 
assured Domitian that full partnership in the government would soon be his, but 
neither tribunician power nor imperium of any kind was conferred upon him 
during Titus’ brief reign. Understandably, the new Emperor was not eager to 
alter this arrangement: he would have expected to rule for at least another 
twenty or thirty years, and urgent attention was required to address the 
multitude of disasters which struck during 79 and 80.

On 24 August 79,
Mount Vesuvius erupted
, burying the surrounding 
cities of Pompeii
and
Herculaneum
under metres of ash and lava; the 
following year, a fire broke out in Rome which lasted three days and which 
destroyed a number of important public buildings. Consequently, Titus spent much 
of his reign coordinating relief efforts and restoring damaged property. On 13 
September 81 after barely two years in office, he unexpectedly died of fever 
during a trip to the
Sabine
territories.

Ancient authors have implicated Domitian in the death of his brother, either 
by directly accusing him of murder, or implying he left the ailing Titus for 
dead, even alleging that during his lifetime, Domitian was openly plotting 
against his brother. It is difficult to assess the factual veracity of these 
statements given the known
bias of the surviving sources. Brotherly affection was likely at a 
minimum, but this was hardly surprising, considering that Domitian had barely 
seen Titus after the age of seven.

Whatever the nature of their relationship, Domitian seems to have displayed 
little sympathy when his brother lay dying, instead making for the
Praetorian camp
where he was proclaimed 
emperor. The following day, 14 September, the Senate confirmed Domitian’s 
powers, granting tribunician power, the office of
Pontifex Maximus
, and the titles of
Augustus
, and
Pater Patriae
.

Emperor (81)

Administration

As Emperor, Domitian quickly dispensed with the republican facade his father 
and brother had maintained during their reign. By moving the centre of 
government (more or less formally) to the imperial
court
, Domitian openly rendered the Senate’s 
powers obsolete. In his view, the Roman Empire was to be governed as a
divine monarchy
with himself as the
benevolent despot
at its head.

In addition to exercising absolute political power, Domitian believed the 
Emperor’s role encompassed every aspect of daily life, guiding the Roman people 
as a cultural and
moral authority
. To usher in the new era, he 
embarked on ambitious economic, military and cultural programs with the 
intention of restoring the Empire to the splendour it had seen under the Emperor
Augustus
.

Despite these grand designs Domitian was determined to govern the Empire 
conscientiously and scrupulously. He became personally involved in all branches 
of the administration:
edicts
were issued governing the smallest 
details of everyday life and law, while taxation and public morals were rigidly 
enforced. According to Suetonius, the imperial
bureaucracy
never ran more efficiently than 
under Domitian, whose exacting standards and suspicious nature maintained 
historically low corruption among
provincial governors
and elected officials.

Although he made no pretence regarding the significance of the Senate under 
his absolute rule, those
senators
he deemed unworthy were expelled from 
the Senate, and in the distribution of public offices he rarely favoured family 
members; a policy which stood in contrast to the
nepotism
practiced by Vespasian and Titus. 
Above all, however, Domitian valued loyalty and malleability in those he 
assigned to strategic posts, qualities he found more often in men of the
equestrian
order than in members of the Senate 
or his own family, whom he regarded with suspicion, and promptly removed from 
office if they disagreed with imperial policy.

The reality of Domitian’s autocracy was further highlighted by the fact that, 
more than any emperor since Tiberius, he spent significant periods of time away 
from the capital. Although the Senate’s power had been in decline since the fall 
of the Republic, under Domitian the seat of power was no longer even in Rome, 
but rather wherever the Emperor was. 
Until the completion of the
Flavian Palace
on the
Palatine Hill
, the imperial court was situated 
at Alba or Circeo, and sometimes even farther afield. Domitian toured the 
European provinces extensively, and spent at least three years of his reign in
Germania
and
Illyricum
, conducting military campaigns on the 
frontiers of the Empire.

Economy

Upon his accession, Domitian revalued the Roman currency by 
increasing the silver content of the
denarius
by 12%. This coin 
commemorates the
deification
of Domitian’s son.

Domitian’s tendency towards
micromanagement
was nowhere more evident than 
in his financial policy. The question of whether Domitian left the Roman Empire 
in debt or with a surplus at the time of his death has been fiercely debated. 
The evidence points to a balanced economy for the greater part of Domitian’s 
reign. 
Upon his accession he revalued the
Roman currency
dramatically. He increased the 
silver purity of the
denarius
from 90% to 98% — the actual silver 
weight increasing from 2.87 grams to 3.26 grams. A financial crisis in 85 forced 
a devaluation
of the silver purity and weight to 
93.5% and 3.04 grams respectively.

Nevertheless the new values were still higher than the levels which Vespasian 
and Titus had maintained during their reigns. Domitian’s rigorous taxation 
policy ensured that this standard was sustained for the following eleven years. 
Coinage from this era displays a highly consistent degree of quality including 
meticulous attention to Domitian’s titulature and refined artwork on the reverse 
portraits.

Jones estimates Domitian’s annual income at more than 1,200 million
sestertii
, of which over one-third would 
presumably have been spent maintaining the Roman army. The other major expense 
was the extensive reconstruction of Rome. At the time of Domitian’s accession 
the city was still suffering from the damage caused by the
Great Fire of 64
, the civil war of 69 and the 
fire in 79.

Much more than a renovation project however, Domitian’s building program was 
intended to be the crowning achievement of an Empire-wide cultural
renaissance
. Around fifty structures were 
erected, restored or completed, achievements second only to those of Augustus. 
Among the most important new structures were an
odeon
, a
stadium
, and an expansive palace on the
Palatine Hill
known as the
Flavian Palace
which was designed by Domitian’s 
master architect
Rabirius
.

The most important building Domitian restored was the
Temple of Jupiter
on the
Capitoline Hill
, said to have been covered with 
a gilded
roof. Among those completed were the
Temple of Vespasian and Titus
, the
Arch of Titus
, and the
Colosseum
, to which he added a fourth level and 
finished the interior seating area.

In order to appease the people of Rome an estimated 135 million sestertii was 
spent on donatives, or
congiaria
, throughout Domitian’s reign. The 
Emperor also revived the practice of public banquets, which had been reduced to 
a simple distribution of food under Nero, while he invested large sums on 
entertainment and games. In 86 he founded the
Capitoline Games
, a quadrennial contest 
comprising
athletic displays
,
chariot racing
, and competitions for
oratory
, music and acting.

Domitian himself supported the travel of competitors from all corners of the 
Empire to Rome and distributed the prizes. Innovations were also introduced into 
the regular gladiatorial
games such as naval contests, 
nighttime battles, and female and dwarf gladiator fights. Lastly, he added two 
new factions to the chariot races, Gold and Purple, to race against the existing 
White, Red, Green and Blue factions.

Military activity

A rock inscription near Boyukdash mountain, Azerbaijan, mentioning 
Domitian and
Legio XII Fulminata
.

The military campaigns undertaken during Domitian’s reign were generally 
defensive in nature, as the Emperor rejected the idea of expansionist warfare. 
His most significant military contribution was the development of the
Limes Germanicus
, which encompassed a vast 
network of roads, forts and watchtowers constructed along the
Rhine
river to defend the Empire. Nevertheless, 
several important wars were fought in
Gaul, against the
Chatti
, and across the
Danube
frontier against the
Suebi
, the
Sarmatians
, and the
Dacians
.

The conquest of Britain continued under the command of
Gnaeus Julius Agricola
, who expanded the Roman 
Empire as far as
Caledonia
, or modern day
Scotland
. Domitian also founded a new
legion
in 82, the
Legio I Minervia
, to fight against the Chatti. 
Domitian is also credited on the easternmost Roman evidence known, 
the rock inscription near Boyukdash mountain, in present-day
Azerbaijan
. As judged by the carved titles of
Caesar
,
Augustus
and Germanicus, the related march took 
place between 84 and 96 AD.

Domitian’s administration of the Roman army was characterized by the same 
fastidious involvement he exhibited in other branches of the government. His 
competence as a military strategist was criticised by his contemporaries 
however. 
Although he claimed several
triumphs
, these were largely propaganda 
manoeuvres. Tacitus derided Domitian’s victory against the Chatti as a “mock 
triumph”, and criticised his decision to retreat from Britain following the 
conquests of Agricola.

Nevertheless, Domitian appears to have been very popular amongst the 
soldiers, spending an estimated three years of his reign among the army on 
campaigns—more than any emperor since Augustus—and raising their pay by 
one-third. 
While the army command may have disapproved of his tactical and strategic 
decisions, the loyalty of the common soldier was unquestioned.

Campaign against 
the Chatti

Once Emperor, Domitian immediately sought to attain his long delayed military 
glory. As early as 82, or possibly 83, he went to Gaul, ostensibly to conduct a
census
, and suddenly ordered an attack on the 
Chatti. For this purpose, a new legion was founded,
Legio I Minervia
, which constructed some 
75 kilometres (46 mi) of roads through Chattan territory to uncover the enemy’s 
hiding places.

Although little information survives of the battles fought, enough early 
victories were apparently achieved for Domitian to be back in Rome by the end of 
83, where he celebrated an elaborate triumph and conferred upon himself the 
title of Germanicus. Domitian’s supposed victory was much scorned by 
ancient authors, who described the campaign as “uncalled for”, and a “mock 
triumph”. The evidence lends some credence to these claims, as the Chatti would 
later play a significant role during the revolt of Saturninus in 89.

Conquest of 
Britain (77-84)

One of the most detailed reports of military activity under the Flavian 
dynasty was written by
Tacitus
, whose biography of his father-in-law
Gnaeus Julius Agricola
largely concerns the 
conquest of Britain between 77 and 84. 
Agricola arrived c. 77 as governor of Roman Britain, immediately launching 
campaigns into
Caledonia
(modern day
Scotland
).

In 82 Agricola crossed an unidentified body of water and defeated peoples 
unknown to the Romans until then. He fortified the coast facing Ireland, and 
Tacitus recalls that his father-in-law often claimed the island could be 
conquered with a single legion and a few
auxiliaries
. He had given refuge to an exiled 
Irish king whom he hoped he might use as the excuse for conquest. This conquest 
never happened, but some historians believe that the crossing referred to was in 
fact a small-scale exploratory or punitive expedition to Ireland.

Turning his attention from Ireland, the following year Agricola raised a 
fleet and pushed beyond the
Forth
into Caledonia. To aid the advance, a 
large legionary fortress was constructed at
Inchtuthil
. In the summer of 84, Agricola faced 
the armies of the Caledonians, led by
Calgacus
, at the
Battle of Mons Graupius
. Although the Romans 
inflicted heavy losses on the enemy, two-thirds of the Caledonian army escaped 
and hid in the Scottish marshes and
Highlands
, ultimately preventing Agricola from 
bringing the entire British island under his control.

In 85, Agricola was recalled to Rome by Domitian, having served for more than 
six years as governor, longer than normal for consular legates during the 
Flavian era. Tacitus claims that Domitian ordered his recall because Agricola’s 
successes outshone the Emperor’s own modest victories in Germania. 
The relationship between Agricola and the Emperor is unclear: on the one hand, 
Agricola was awarded triumphal decorations and a statue, on the other, Agricola 
never again held a civil or military post in spite of his experience and renown. 
He was offered the governorship of the province of
Africa
, but declined it, either due to ill 
health or, as Tacitus claims, the machinations of Domitian.

Not long after Agricola’s recall from Britain, the Roman Empire entered into 
war with the Kingdom of Dacia
in the East. Reinforcements 
were needed, and in 87 or 88, Domitian ordered a large-scale strategic
withdrawal
of troops in the British province. 
The fortress at Inchtuthil was dismantled and the Caledonian forts and 
watchtowers abandoned, moving the Roman frontier some 120 kilometres (75 mi) 
further south. The army command may have resented Domitian’s decision to 
retreat, but to him the Caledonian territories never represented anything more 
than a loss to the Roman treasury.

Dacian wars 
(85–88)

The most significant threat the Roman Empire faced during the reign of 
Domitian arose from the northern provinces of
Illyricum
, where the Suebi, the Sarmatians and 
the Dacians
continuously harassed Roman settlements 
along the Danube
river. Of these, the Sarmatians and the 
Dacians posed the most formidable threat. In approximately 84 or 85 the Dacians, 
led by King Decebalus
, crossed the Danube into the province 
of Moesia
, wreaking havoc and killing the Moesian 
governor
Oppius Sabinus
.

Domitian quickly launched a
counteroffensive
, personally travelling to the 
region accompanied by a large force commanded by his
praetorian prefect

Cornelius Fuscus
. Fuscus successfully drove the 
Dacians back across the border in mid-85, prompting Domitian to return to Rome 
and celebrate his second triumph.

The victory proved short-lived, however: as early in 86 Fuscus embarked on an 
ill-fated expedition into Dacia which resulted in the complete destruction of 
the fifth legion,
Legio V Alaudae
, in the
First Battle of Tapae
. Fuscus was killed, and 
the
battle standard
of the Praetorian Guard was 
lost. The loss of the battle standard, or aquila, was indicative of a 
crushing defeat and a serious affront to Roman national pride.

Domitian returned to Moesia in August 86. He divided the province into Lower 
Moesia and Upper Moesia, and transferred three additional legions to the Danube. 
In 87, the Romans invaded Dacia once more, this time under the command of
Tettius Julianus
, and finally defeated 
Decebalus in late 88 at the same site where Fuscus had previously perished. An 
attack on the Dacian capital
Sarmizegetusa
was forestalled when new troubles 
arose on the German frontier in 89.

In order to avert having to conduct a war on two fronts, Domitian agreed to 
terms of peace with Decebalus, negotiating free access of Roman troops through 
the Dacian region while granting Decebalus an annual subsidy of 8 million 
sesterces. Contemporary authors severely criticised this treaty, which was 
considered shameful to the Romans and left the deaths of Sabinus and Fuscus 
unavenged. For the remainder of Domitian’s reign Dacia remained a relatively 
peaceful
client kingdom
, but Decebalus used the Roman 
money to fortify his defences.

Domitian probably wanted a new war against the Dacians, and reinforced Upper 
Moesia with two more cavalry units brought from Syria and with at least five 
cohorts brought from Pannonia.
Trajan
continued Domitian’s policy and added 
two more units to the auxiliary forces of Upper Moesia, and then he used the 
build up of troops for his Dacian wars. Eventually the Romans achieved a 
decisive victory against Decebalus in 106. Again, the Roman army sustained heavy 
losses, but Trajan succeeded in capturing Sarmizegetusa and, importantly, 
annexed the Dacian gold and silver mines.

Religious policy

Domitian firmly believed in the traditional
Roman religion
, and personally saw to it that 
ancient customs and morals were observed throughout his reign. In order to 
justify the divine nature of the Flavian rule, Domitian emphasized connections 
with the chief deity
Jupiter
, perhaps most significantly through the 
impressive restoration of the
Temple of Jupiter
on the
Capitoline Hill
. A small
chapel
dedicated to Jupiter Conservator 
was also constructed near the house where Domitian had fled to safety on 20 
December, 69. Later in his reign, he replaced it with a more expansive building, 
dedicated to Jupiter Custos.

The goddess he worshipped the most zealously however was
Minerva
. Not only did he keep a personal shrine 
dedicated to her in his bedroom, she regularly appeared on his coinage—in four 
different attested reverse types—and he founded a legion, Legio I Minervia, in 
her name.

Domitian also revived the practice of the
imperial cult
, which had fallen somewhat out of 
use under Vespasian. Significantly, his first act as an Emperor was the 
deification of his brother Titus. Upon their deaths, his infant son, and niece, 
Julia Flavia, were likewise enrolled among the gods. With regards to the emperor 
himself as a religious figure, both
Suetonius
and
Cassius Dio
allege that Domitian officially 
gave himself the title of Dominus et Deus. 
However, not only did he reject the title of Dominus during his reign, 
but since he issued no official documentation or coinage to this effect, 
historians such as Brian Jones contend that such phrases were addressed to 
Domitian by flatterers who wished to earn favors from the emperor.

To foster the worship of the imperial family, he erected a dynastic
mausoleum
on the site of Vespasian’s former 
house on the
Quirinal
, and completed the
Temple of Vespasian and Titus
, a shrine 
dedicated to the worship of his deified father and brother. To memorialize the 
military triumphs of the Flavian family, he ordered the construction of the 
Templum Divorum and the Templum Fortuna Redux, and completed the
Arch of Titus
.

Construction projects such as these constituted only the most visible part of 
Domitian’s religious policy, which also concerned itself with the fulfilment of 
religious law and public morals. In 85, he nominated himself perpetual
censor
, the office which held the task of 
supervising Roman morals and conduct. Once again, Domitian acquitted himself of 
this task dutifully, and with care. He renewed the
Lex Iulia de Adulteriis Coercendis
, under 
which adultery was punishable by
exile
. From the list of jurors he struck an 
equestrian who had divorced his wife and taken her back, while an ex-quaestor 
was expelled from the Senate for acting and dancing.

Domitian also heavily prosecuted corruption among public officials, removing 
jurors if they accepted bribes and rescinding legislation when a
conflict of interest
was suspected. 
He ensured that
libellous
writings, especially those directed 
against himself, were punishable by exile or death. 
Actors were likewise regarded with suspicion, as their performances provided an 
opportunity for satire
at the expense of the government. 
Consequently, he forbade
mimes
from appearing on stage in public.

In 87,
Vestal Virgins
were found to have broken their 
sacred vows of lifelong public chastity. As the Vestals were regarded as 
daughters of the community, this offence essentially constituted
incest
. Accordingly, those found guilty of any 
such transgression were condemned to death, either by a manner of their 
choosing, or according to the ancient fashion, which dictated that Vestals 
should be
buried alive
.

Foreign religions were tolerated insofar as they did not interfere with 
public order, or could be assimilated with the traditional Roman religion. The 
worship of Egyptian deities in particular flourished under the Flavian dynasty, 
to an extent not seen again until the reign of
Commodus
. Veneration of
Serapis
and
Isis, who were identified with Jupiter and Minerva respectively, was 
especially prominent.

4th century writings by
Eusebius of Caesarea
maintains that
Jews
and
Christians
were heavily
persecuted
toward the end of Domitian’s reign. 
The
Book of Revelation
is thought by some to have 
been written during this period. Although Jews were heavily taxed, no 
contemporary authors mention trials or executions based on
religious offenses
other than those within the 
Roman religion.

Opposition

Revolt 
of Governor Saturninus (89)

Domitian,
Capitoline Museums
,
Rome
.

On 1 January 89, the governor of
Germania Superior
,
Lucius Antonius Saturninus
, and his two legions 
at Mainz
,
Legio XIV Gemina
and
Legio XXI Rapax
, revolted against the Roman 
Empire with the aid of the
Germanic Chatti tribe
. 
The precise cause for the rebellion is uncertain, although it appears to have 
been planned well in advance. The Senatorial officers may have disapproved of 
Domitian’s military strategies, such as his decision to fortify the German 
frontier rather than attack, as well as his recent retreat from Britain, and 
finally the disgraceful policy of
appeasement
towards Decebalus.

At any rate, the uprising was strictly confined to Saturninus’ province, and 
quickly detected once the rumour spread across the neighbouring provinces. The
governor of Germania Inferior
, Lappius Maximus, 
moved to the region at once, assisted by the procurator of
Rhaetia
, Titus Flavius Norbanus. From Spain, 
Trajan was summoned, whilst Domitian himself came from Rome with the Praetorian 
Guard.

By a stroke of luck, a thaw prevented the Chatti from crossing the Rhine and 
coming to Saturninus’ aid. Within twenty-four days the rebellion was crushed, 
and its leaders at Mainz savagely punished. The mutinous legions were sent to 
the front in
Illyricum
, while those who had assisted in 
their defeat were duly rewarded.

Lappius Maximus received the governorship of the province of Syria, a 
consulship in May 95, and finally a priesthood which he still held in 102. Titus 
Flavius Norbanus may have been appointed to the prefecture of Egypt, but almost 
certainly became prefect of the Praetorian Guard by 94, with
Titus Petronius Secundus
as his colleague. 
Domitian opened the year following the revolt by sharing the consulship with 
Marcus Cocceius Nerva, suggesting the latter had played a part in uncovering the 
conspiracy, perhaps in a fashion similar to the one he played during the
Pisonian conspiracy
under Nero.

Although little is known about the life and career of Nerva before his 
accession as Emperor in 96, he appears to have been a highly adaptable diplomat, 
surviving multiple regime changes and emerging as one of the Flavians’ most 
trusted advisors. 
His consulship may therefore have been intended to emphasise the stability and 
status quo of the regime. The revolt had been suppressed and the Empire returned 
to order.

Relationship 
with the Senate

Since the fall of the
Republic
, the authority of the
Roman Senate
had largely eroded under the 
quasi-monarchical system of government established by
Augustus
, known as the
Principate
. The Principate allowed the 
existence of a de facto dictatorial regime, while maintaining the formal 
framework of the Roman Republic. Most Emperors upheld the public facade of 
democracy, and in return the Senate implicitly acknowledged the Emperor’s status 
as a de facto monarch.

Some rulers handled this arrangement with less subtlety than others. Domitian 
was not so subtle. From the outset of his reign, he stressed the reality of his
autocracy
. He disliked
aristocrats
and had no fear of showing it, 
withdrawing every decision-making power from the Senate, and instead relying on 
a small set of friends and equestrians to control the important offices of 
state.

The dislike was mutual. After Domitian’s assassination, the senators of Rome 
rushed to the Senate house, where they immediately passed a motion
condemning his memory
to oblivion. Under the 
rulers of the Nervan-Antonian dynasty, senatorial authors published histories 
which elaborated on the view of Domitian as a tyrant.

Nevertheless, the evidence suggests that Domitian did make concessions toward 
senatorial opinion. Whereas his father and brother had concentrated consular 
power largely in the hands of the Flavian family, Domitian admitted a 
surprisingly large number of provincials and potential opponents to the 
consulship, allowing them to head the official calendar by opening the year as 
an ordinary consul. 
Whether this was a genuine attempt to reconcile with hostile factions in the 
Senate cannot be ascertained. By offering the consulship to potential opponents, 
Domitian may have wanted to compromise these senators in the eyes of their 
supporters. When their conduct proved unsatisfactory, they were almost 
invariably brought to trial and exiled or executed, and their property was 
confiscated.

Both Tacitus and Suetonius speak of escalating persecutions toward the end of 
Domitian’s reign, identifying a point of sharp increase around 93, or sometime 
after the failed revolt of Saturninus in 89. At least twenty senatorial 
opponents were executed, 
including Domitia Longina’s former husband Lucius Aelius Lamia and three of 
Domitian’s own family members,
Titus Flavius Sabinus IV
,
Titus Flavius Clemens
and
Marcus Arrecinus Clemens
. 
Some of these men were executed as early as 83 or 85 however, lending little 
credit to Tacitus’ notion of a “reign of terror” late in Domitian’s reign. 
According to Suetonius, some were convicted for corruption or treason, others on 
trivial charges, which Domitian justified through his suspicion:

He used to say that the lot of Emperors was most unfortunate, since when 
they discovered a conspiracy, no one believed them unless they had been 
murdered.

Suetonius
,
De Vita Caesarum
, “Life of 
Domitian”, 21

Jones compares the executions of Domitian to those under Emperor
Claudius
(41–55), noting that Claudius executed 
around 35 senators and 300 equestrians, and yet was still deified by the Senate 
and regarded as one of the good Emperors of history. 
Domitian was apparently unable to gain support among the aristocracy, despite 
attempts to appease hostile factions with consular appointments. His autocratic 
style of government accentuated the Senate’s loss of power, while his policy of 
treating patricians and even family members as equals to all Romans earned him 
their contempt.

Death and succession

Assassination (96)

According to Suetonius, Domitian worshipped
Minerva
as his protector goddess 
with superstitious veneration. In a
dream
, she is said to have 
abandoned the emperor prior to the
assassination
.

Domitian was murdered on 18 September 96, in a palace conspiracy organized by 
court officials. A highly detailed account of the plot and the assassination is 
provided by Suetonius
, who alleges that Domitian’s 
chamberlain Parthenius was the chief instigator behind the conspiracy, citing 
the recent execution of Domitian’s secretary
Epaphroditus
as the primary motive.The murder 
itself was carried out by a freedman of Parthenius named Maximus, and a steward 
of Domitian’s niece
Flavia Domitilla
, named
Stephanus
.

The precise involvement of the Praetorian Guard is less clear. At the time 
the Guard was commanded by Titus Flavius Norbanus and Titus Petronius Secundus 
and the latter was almost certainly aware of the plot.
Cassius Dio
, writing nearly a hundred years 
after the assassination, includes Domitia Longina among the conspirators, but in 
light of her attested devotion to Domitian—even years after her husband had 
died—her involvement in the plot seems highly unlikely.

Dio further suggests that the assassination was improvised, while Suetonius 
implies a well organised conspiracy. For some days before the attack took place, 
Stephanus feigned an injury so as to be able to conceal a
dagger
beneath his bandages. On the day of the 
assassination the doors to the servants’ quarters were locked while Domitian’s 
personal weapon of last resort, a sword he concealed beneath his pillow, had 
been removed in advance.

In accordance with an
astrological
prediction the Emperor believed 
that he would die around noon, and was therefore restless during this time of 
the day. On his last day, Domitian was feeling disturbed and asked a servant 
several times what time it was. The boy, included in the plot, lied, saying that 
it was much later than noon. More at ease, the Emperor went to his desk to sign 
some decrees, where he was suddenly approached by Stephanus:

Then pretending to betray a conspiracy and for that reason being given an 
audience, [Stephanus] stabbed the emperor in the groin as he was reading a 
paper which the assassin handed him, and stood in a state of amazement. As 
the wounded prince attempted to resist, he was slain with seven wounds by 
Clodianus, a subaltern, Maximus, a freedman of Parthenius, Satur, decurion 
of the chamberlains, and a gladiator from the imperial school.

Suetonius
,
De Vita Caesarum
, “Life of 
Domitian”, 17

Domitian and Stephanus wrestled on the ground for some time, until the 
Emperor was finally overpowered and fatally stabbed by the conspirators. Around 
noon Domitian, just one month short of his 45th birthday, was dead. His body was 
carried away on a common
bier, and unceremoniously
cremated
by his nurse Phyllis, who later 
mingled the ashes with those of his niece Julia, at the Flavian temple.

According to Suetonius, a number of
omens had foretold Domitian’s death. Several days prior to the 
assassination, Minerva
had appeared to him in a dream, 
announcing she had been disarmed by
Jupiter
, and would no longer be able to protect 
him.

Succession and 
aftermath

Upon the death of Domitian,
Nerva
was proclaimed Emperor by the
Senate
.

The Fasti Ostienses
, the Ostian Calendar, 
records that the same day the Senate proclaimed Marcus Cocceius Nerva emperor. 
Despite his political experience, this was a remarkable choice. Nerva was old 
and childless, and had spent much of his career out of the public light, 
prompting both ancient and modern authors to speculate on his involvement in 
Domitian’s assassination

According to Cassius Dio, the conspirators approached Nerva as a potential 
successor prior to the assassination, suggesting that he was at least aware of 
the plot He does not appear in Suetonius’ version of the events, but this may be 
understandable, since his works were published under Nerva’s direct descendants 
Trajan and Hadrian. To suggest the dynasty owed its accession to murder would 
have been less than sensitive.

On the other hand, Nerva lacked widespread support in the Empire, and as a 
known Flavian loyalist, his track record would not have recommended him to the 
conspirators. The precise facts have been obscured by history, but modern 
historians believe Nerva was proclaimed Emperor solely on the initiative of the 
Senate, within hours after the news of the assassination broke. 
The decision may have been hasty so as to avoid civil war, but neither appears 
to have been involved in the conspiracy.

The Senate nonetheless rejoiced at the death of Domitian, and immediately 
following Nerva’s accession as Emperor, passed
damnatio memoriae
on his memory: his coins 
and statues were melted, his arches were torn down and his name was erased from 
all public records. 
Domitian and, over a century later
Publius Septimius Geta
, were the only emperors 
known to have officially received a damnatio memoriae, though others may 
have received de facto ones. In many instances, existing portraits of 
Domitian, such as those found on the
Cancelleria Reliefs
, were simply recarved to 
fit the likeness of Nerva, which allowed quick production of new images and 
recycling of previous material. Yet the order of the Senate was only partially 
executed in Rome, and wholly disregarded in most of the provinces outside Italy.

According to Suetonius, the people of Rome met the news of Domitian’s death 
with indifference, but the army was much grieved, calling for his
deification
immediately after the 
assassination, and in several provinces rioting. As a compensation measure, the 
Praetorian guard demanded the execution of Domitian’s assassins, which Nerva 
refused. Instead he merely dismissed Titus Petronius Secundus, and replaced him 
with a former commander,
Casperius Aelianus
.

Dissatisfaction with this state of affairs continued to loom over Nerva’s 
reign, and ultimately erupted into a crisis in October 97, when members of the 
Praetorian guard, led by Casperius Aelianus, laid
siege
to the Imperial Palace and took Nerva 
hostage. He was forced to submit to their demands, agreeing to hand over those 
responsible for Domitian’s death and even giving a speech thanking the 
rebellious Praetorians. Titus Petronius Secundus and Parthenius were sought out 
and killed. Nerva was unharmed in this assault, but his authority was damaged 
beyond repair. Shortly thereafter he announced the adoption of
Trajan
as his successor, and with this decision 
all but abdicated
.

Legacy

Ancient sources

 

Domitian as Emperor (Vatican 
Museums), possibly recut from a statue of Nero.

The classic view of Domitian is usually negative, since most of the antique 
sources were related to the Senatorial or aristocratic class, with which 
Domitian had a notoriously difficult relation. Furthermore, contemporary 
historians such as
Pliny the Younger
,
Tacitus
and
Suetonius
all authored the information on his 
reign after it had ended, and his memory had been condemned to oblivion. The 
work of Domitian’s court poets
Martial
and
Statius
constitutes virtually the only literary 
evidence concurrent with his reign. Perhaps equally unsurprising as the attitude 
of post-Domitianic historians, the poems of Martial and Statius are highly 
adulatory, praising Domitian’s achievements as equalling those of the gods.

The most extensive account of the life of Domitian to survive was written by 
the historian Suetonius, who was born during the reign of Vespasian, and 
published his works under Emperor
Hadrian
(117–138). His
De Vita Caesarum
is the source of much of 
what is known of Domitian. Although his text is predominantly negative, it 
neither exclusively condemns nor praises Domitian, and asserts that his rule 
started well, but gradually declined into terror. 
The biography is problematic however, in that it appears to contradict itself 
with regards to Domitian’s rule and personality, at the same time presenting him 
as a conscientious, moderate man, and as a decadent
libertine
.

According to Suetonius, Domitian wholly feigned his interest in arts and 
literature, and never bothered to acquaint himself with classic authors. Other 
passages, alluding to Domitian’s love of
epigrammatic
expression, suggest that he was in 
fact familiar with classic writers, while he also patronized poets and 
architects, founded artistic Olympics, and personally restored the library of 
Rome at great expense after it had burned down.

De Vita Caesarum is also the source of several outrageous stories 
regarding Domitian’s marriage life. According to Suetonius, Domitia Longina was 
exiled in 83 because of an affair with a famous actor named
Paris
. When Domitian found out, he allegedly 
murdered Paris in the street and promptly divorced his wife, with Suetonius 
further adding that once Domitia was exiled, Domitian took Julia as his 
mistress, who later died during a failed
abortion
.

Modern historians consider this highly implausible however, noting that 
malicious rumours such as those concerning Domitia’s alleged infidelity were 
eagerly repeated by post-Domitianic authors, and used to highlight the hypocrisy 
of a ruler publicly preaching a return to Augustan morals, while privately 
indulging in excesses and presiding over a corrupt court. Nevertheless, the 
account of Suetonius has dominated imperial historiography for centuries.

Although Tacitus is usually considered to be the most reliable author of this 
era, his views on Domitian are complicated by the fact that his father-in-law, 
Gnaeus Julius Agricola, may have been a personal enemy of the Emperor. In his 
biographical work
Agricola
, Tacitus maintains that Agricola 
was forced into retirement because his triumph over the Caledonians highlighted 
Domitian’s own inadequacy as a military commander. Several modern authors such 
as Dorey have argued the opposite: that Agricola was in fact a close friend of 
Domitian, and that Tacitus merely sought to distance his family from the fallen 
dynasty once Nerva was in power.

Tacitus’ major historical works, including The Histories and 
Agricola’s biography, were all written and published under Domitian’s successors 
Nerva (96–98) and Trajan (98–117). Unfortunately, the part of Tacitus’
Histories dealing with the reign of the Flavian dynasty is almost entirely 
lost. His views on Domitian survive through brief comments in its first five 
books, and the short but highly negative characterisation in Agricola in 
which he severely criticises Domitian’s military endeavours. Nevertheless, 
Tacitus admits his debt to the Flavians with regard to his own public career.

Other influential 2nd century authors include
Juvenal
and
Pliny the Younger
, the latter of whom was a 
friend of Tacitus and in 100 delivered his famous Panygericus Traiani 
before Trajan and the Roman Senate, exalting the new era of restored freedom 
while condemning Domitian as a tyrant. Juvenal savagely satirized the Domitianic 
court in his
Satires
, depicting the Emperor and his 
entourage as corrupt, violent and unjust. As a consequence, the anti-Domitianic 
tradition was already well established by the end of the 2nd century, and by the 
3rd century, even expanded upon by early Church historians, who identified 
Domitian as an early persecutor of Christians.

Modern revisionism

Hostile views of Domitian were propagated until well into the early 20th 
century, before
archeological
and
numismatic
advances brought renewed attention 
to his reign, and necessitated a revision of the literary tradition established 
by Tacitus and Pliny. In 1930,
Ronald Syme
argued a complete reassessment of 
Domitian’s financial policy, which had until then been largely viewed as a 
disaster, opening his paper with the following introduction:

“The work of the spade and the use of common sense have done much to 
mitigate the influence of Tacitus and Pliny and redeem the memory of 
Domitian from infamy or oblivion. But much remains to be done.”
 

Ronald Syme
, Imperial finances under 
Domitian, Nerva and Trajan

Over the course of the 20th century, Domitian’s military, administrative and 
economic policies were re-evaluated. New book length studies were not published 
until the 1990s however, nearly a hundred years after
Stéphane Gsell
‘s Essai sur le règne de 
l’empereur Domitien (1894). The most important of these was The Emperor 
Domitian, by
Brian W. Jones
. In his
monograph
, Jones concludes that Domitian was a 
ruthless, but efficient autocrat. 
For the majority of his reign, there was no widespread dissatisfaction with the 
emperor or his rule. His harshness was felt by only a small, but highly vocal 
minority, who later exaggerated his despotism in favour of the well regarded
Nervan-Antonian dynasty
which followed.

Domitian’s foreign policy was realistic, rejecting expansionist warfare and 
negotiating peace at a time when Roman military tradition dictated aggressive 
conquest. His economic program, which was rigorously efficient, maintained the 
Roman currency at a standard it would never again achieve. Persecution of 
religious minorities, such as Jews and Christians, was non-existent. Domitian’s 
government nonetheless exhibited
totalitarian
characteristics. As Emperor, he 
saw himself as the new Augustus, an enlightened despot destined to guide the 
Roman Empire into a new era of Flavian renaissance.

Religious, military and cultural
propaganda
fostered a
cult of personality
. He deified three of his 
family members and erected massive structures to commemorate the Flavian 
achievements. Elaborate triumphs were celebrated in order to boost his image as 
a warrior-emperor, but many of these were either unearned or premature. By 
nominating himself perpetual censor, he sought to control public and private 
morals.

He became personally involved in all branches of the government and 
successfully prosecuted corruption among public officials. The dark side of his 
censorial power involved a restriction in freedom of speech, and an increasingly 
oppressive attitude toward the Roman Senate. He punished libel with exile or 
death and, due to his suspicious nature, increasingly accepted information from
informers
to bring false charges of treason if 
necessary.

Although contemporary historians vilified Domitian after his death, his 
administration provided the foundation for the Principate of the peaceful 2nd 
century. His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive, but in reality 
their policies differed little from Domitian’s. Much more than a “gloomy coda to 
the…1st century” the Roman Empire prospered between 81 and 96, in a reign 
which
Theodor Mommsen
described as the sombre but 
intelligent despotism of Domitian.