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Herennia
Etruscilla – Roman Empress wife
of
Trajan Decius
Silver Antoninianus 22mm (4.42 grams) Struck at the mint of Rome circa 250-251
A.D.
Reference: RIC 58b (Trajan Decius), C 17
HERETRVSCILLAAVG – Diademed, draped bust right on crescent.
PVDICITIAAVG – Pudicitia, veiled, standing left, with right hand drawing
veil from face and holding scepter.
PVDICITIA AVGustæ – This form of legend by which the attributes of deified
modesty are more closely identified with the person of the Empress than they are
in previously cited instances, appears with the usual type of a veiled woman, on
coins of Roman empresses.
You are bidding on the exact item pictured,
provided with a Certificate of Authenticity and Lifetime Guarantee of
Authenticity.
Pudicitia (“modesty” or “sexual virtue”) was a central concept in
ancient Roman sexual ethics
. The word is
derived from the more general pudor, the sense of shame that regulated an
individual’s behavior as socially acceptable. Pudicitia was most often a
defining characteristic of women, but men who failed to conform to
masculine sexual norms
were said to exhibit
feminizing impudicitia, sexual shamelessness. The virtue was
personified
by the
Roman goddess
Pudicitia, whose
Greek equivalent
was
Aidôs
.
As virtue
Romans, both men and women, were expected to uphold the virtue of
pudicitia, a complex ideal that was explored by many ancient writers,
including Livy
,
Valerius Maximus
,
Cicero
and
Tacitus
. Livy describes the legendary figure of
Lucretia
as the epitome of pudicitia.
She is loyal to her husband and is modest, despite her incredible beauty. The
story of Lucretia shows that the more virtuous a woman was, the more appealing
she was to potential adulterers.
Pudicitia was not only a mental attribute but also physical; a
person’s appearance was seen as an indicator of their morality. The way a man or
woman presented him or herself in public, and the persons they interacted with
caused others to pass judgment on their pudicitia. For example, if a
woman was seen associating with men other than her husband people would make a
negative judgment on her pudicitia. Romans idealized the woman who was
univira, a “one-man” woman, married once, even though by the time of Cicero
and Julius Caesar
,
divorce
was common, the subject of gossip
rather than social stigma.[1]
Modest self-presentation indicated pudicitia. The opposite of
pudicitia was impudicitia, “shamelessness” or “sexual vice.” An
assault on pudicitia was
stuprum
, sexual misconduct or “sex crime.”
Romans associated the loss of pudicitia with chaos and loss of
control. In Cicero’s
oration against Verres
, he discusses many of
the governor’s transgressions including sexual misconduct with both men and
women. In the Imperial age,
Augustus
enacted a program of moral legislation
to encourage pudicitia.
The goddess
According to Livy
, there were two temples of Pudicitia in
Rome. The original one was for women of the
patrician
class only, but when
Verginia
was excluded on account of marrying a
plebeian
consul
, she and a group of plebeian matrons
founded an altar of Pudicitia for women of the
plebeian
class as well. Livy states that the
plebeian shrine of Pudicitia eventually fell into disuse after its sacred
character had been abused.
Annia Cupressenia Herennia Etruscilla was
Augusta
(Sept. 249 – Jun. 251) of the
Roman Empire
, wife of
Emperor
Decius
, and mother of Emperors
Herennius Etruscus
and
Hostilian
.
As with most third century Roman empresses, very little is known about her.
Probably of senatorial family, she became regent on her son Hostilian, when
Decius and Herennius were defeated and killed in the
Battle of Abrittus
to sink into obscurity after
her husband and sons perished. It is assumed that her ancestors settled in
Etrurian
lands. Herennia married Decius
probably before 230 and gained the title
Augusta
. Her sons were
Herennius Etruscus
and
Hostilian
.
A veil is an article of clothing or cloth hanging that is intended to
cover some part of the
head
or
face, or an object of some significance. It is especially associated
with women and sacred objects.
One view is that as a religious item, it is intended to show honor to an
object or space. The actual sociocultural, psychological, and sociosexual
functions of veils have not been studied extensively but most likely include the
maintenance of social distance and the communication of social status and
cultural identity. In Islamic society, various forms of the veil have been
adopted from the Arab culture in which Islam arose. The
Quran
has no requirement that women cover their
faces with a veil, or cover their bodies with the full-body
burqua
or
chador
.
History
The first recorded instance of veiling for women is recorded in an
Assyrian
legal text from the 13th century BC,
which restricted its use to noble women and forbade prostitutes and common women
from adopting it.[citation
needed] The
Mycenaean Greek
term a-pu-ko-wo-ko
meaning “craftsman of horse veil” written in
Linear B
syllabic script is also attested since
ca. 1300 BC. In
ancient Greek
the word for veil was “καλύπτρα”
(kaluptra,
Ionic Greek
“καλύπτρη” – kaluptrē, from
the verb “καλύπτω” – kaluptō, “I cover”) and is first attested in the
works of Homer
.
Classical Greek and Hellenistic statues sometimes depict Greek women with
both their head and face covered by a veil. Caroline Galt and Lloyd
Llewellyn-Jones have both argued from such representations and literary
references that it was commonplace for women (at least those of higher status)
in ancient Greece to cover their hair and face in public.
For many centuries, until around 1175,
Anglo-Saxon
and then
Anglo-Norman
women, with the exception of young
unmarried girls, wore veils that entirely covered their hair, and often their
necks up to their chins (see
wimple
). Only in the
Tudor period
(1485), when
hoods
became increasingly popular, did veils of
this type become less common.
For centuries, women have worn sheer veils, but only under certain
circumstances. Sometimes a veil of this type was draped over and pinned to the
bonnet
or hat of a woman in
mourning
, especially at the
funeral
and during the subsequent period of
“high mourning”. They would also have been used, as an alternative to a
mask, as a simple method of hiding the identity of a woman who was
traveling to meet a lover, or doing anything she didn’t want other people to
find out about. More pragmatically, veils were also sometimes worn to protect
the complexion from sun and wind damage (when un-tanned skin was fashionable),
or to keep dust out of a woman’s face, much as the
keffiyeh
is used today.
Religion
In Judaism
,
Christianity
and
Islam
the concept of covering the head is or
was associated with propriety and modesty. Most traditional depictions of the
Virgin Mary
, the mother of
Christ
, show her veiled. During the
Middle Ages
most European and Byzantine married
women covered their hair rather than their face, with a variety of styles of
wimple
, kerchiefs and headscarfs. Veiling,
covering the hair rather than the face, was a common practice with church-going
women until the 1960s, typically using
lace, and a number of very traditional churches retain the custom.
Lace face-veils are still often worn by female relatives at funerals.
In North India, Hindu women may often veil for traditional purposes, it is
often the custom in rural areas to veil in front of male elders. This veil is
called the Ghoonghat
or Laaj. This is to show humility and
respect to those elder to the woman, in particular elder males. The ghoonghat is
customary especially in the westerly states of
Gujarat
and
Rajasthan
.
Although religion stands as a commonly held reason for choosing to veil, it
has also reflects on political regimes and personal conviction, allowing it to
serve as a medium through which personal character can be revealed.
Praying Jewish woman wearing
Tichel
Judaism
After the
destruction of the Temple
in
Jerusalem
, the
synagogues
that were established took the
design of the
Tabernacle
as their plan. The
Ark of the Law
, which contains the
scrolls
of the
Torah
, is covered with an embroidered curtain
or veil called a
parokhet
. (See also
below
regarding the veiling – and unveiling –
of the bride.)
The
Veil of our Lady
is a liturgical feast
celebrating the protection afforded by the
intercessions
of the Virgin Mary.
Traditionally, in Christianity, women were enjoined to cover their heads in
church, just as it was (and still is) customary for men to remove their hat as a
sign of respect. This practice is based on
1 Corinthians 11:4–16
, where
St. Paul
writes:
Any man who prays or prophesies with his head covered brings shame upon
his head. But any woman who prays or prophesies with her head unveiled
brings shame upon her head, for it is one and the same thing as if she had
had her head shaved. For if a woman does not have her head veiled, she may
as well have her hair cut off. But if it is shameful for a woman to have her
hair cut off or her head shaved, then she should wear a veil. A man, on the
other hand, should not cover his head, because he is the image and glory of
God, but woman is the glory of man. For man did not come from woman, but
woman from man; nor was man created for woman, but woman for man; for this
reason a woman should have a sign of authority on her head, because of the
angels. Woman is not independent of man or man of woman in the Lord. For
just as woman came from man, so man is born of woman; but all things are
from God. Judge for yourselves: is it proper for a woman to pray to God with
her head unveiled? Does not nature itself teach you that if a man wears his
hair long it is a disgrace to him, whereas if a woman has long hair it is
her glory, because long hair has been given (her) for a covering? But if
anyone is inclined to be argumentative, we do not have such a custom, nor do
the churches of God (New
American Bible translation)
In many traditional
Eastern Orthodox Churches
, and in some very
conservative
Protestant
churches as well, the custom
continues of women covering their heads in church (or even when praying
privately at home).
In the
Roman Catholic Church
, it was customary in most
places before the 1960s for women to wear a headcovering in the form of a scarf,
cap, veil or hat when entering a church. The practice now continues where it is
seen as a matter of etiquette, courtesy, tradition or fashionable elegance
rather than strictly of canon law.
Traditionalist Catholics
also maintain the
practice.
The wearing of a headcovering was for the first time mandated as a universal
rule for the
Latin Rite
by the
Code of Canon Law of 1917
, which code was
abrogated by the advent of the present (1983) Code of Canon Law. Traditionalist
Catholics majorly still follow it, generally as a matter of ancient custom and
biblically approved aptness, some also supposing St. Paul’s directive in full
force today as an ordinance of its own right, without a canon law rule enforcing
it. The photograph here of Mass in the
Netherlands
in about 1946, two decades before
the changes that followed the
Second Vatican Council
, shows that, even at
that time, when a hat was still considered part of formal dress for both women
and men, wearing a headcovering at Mass was not a universal practice for
Catholic women.
A veil over the hair rather than the face forms part of the headdress of some
religiouss
of
nuns or
religious
sisters; this is why a woman who
becomes a nun is said “to take the veil”. In medieval times married women
normally covered their hair outside the house, and nun’s veils are based on
secular medieval styles, reflecting nuns position as “brides of Christ”. In many
institutes, a white veil is used as the “veil of probation” during
novitiate
, and a dark veil for the “veil of
profession” once religious vows are taken – the color scheme varies with the
color scheme of the habit of the order. A veil of
consecration
, longer and fuller, is used by
some orders for final profession of
solemn vows
.
Nuns
also wear veils
Nuns are the female counterparts of
monks, and many
monastic orders
of women have retained the
veil. Regarding other institutes of religious sisters who are not
cloistered
but who work as teachers, nurses or
in other “active” apostolates outside of a nunnery or monastery, some wear the
veil, while some others have abolished the use of the veil, a few never had a
veil to start with, but used a bonnet-style headdress even a century ago, as in
the case of
St. Elizabeth Ann Seton
.
The fullest versions of the nun’s veil cover the top of the head and flow
down around and over the shoulders. In Western Christianity, it does not wrap
around the neck or face. In those orders that retain one, the starched white
covering about the face neck and shoulders is known as a
wimple
and is a separate garment.
The Catholic Church has revived the ancient practice of allowing women to
profess a solemn vow as
consecrated virgins
. These women are set aside
as sacred persons who belong only to Christ and the service of the church. They
are under the direct care of the local
bishop
, without belonging to a particular order
and receive the veil as a
sign
of
consecration
.
There has also been renewed interest in the last half century in the ancient
practice of women and men dedicating themselves as
anchorites
or
hermits
, and there is a formal process whereby
such persons can seek recognition of their vows by the local bishop – a veil for
these women would also be traditional.
Some Anglican
women’s religious orders also wear a
veil, differing according to the traditions of each order.
In
Eastern Orthodoxy
and in the
Eastern Rites
of the Catholic Church, a veil
called an
epanokamelavkion
is used by both nuns and
monks, in both cases covering completely the
kamilavkion
, a cylindrical hat they both
wear. In
Slavic
practice, when the veil is worn over the
hat, the entire headdress
is referred to as a
klobuk
. Nuns wear an additional veil under
the klobuk, called an
apostolnik
, which is drawn together to
cover the neck and shoulders as well as their heads, leaving the face itself
open.
Islam
A variety of headdresses worn by
Muslim women
and girls in accordance with
hijab
(the principle of dressing modestly)
are sometimes referred to as veils. The principal aim of the Muslim veil is to
hide that which men find sexually attractive. Many of these garments cover the
hair, ears and throat, but do not cover the face. The
khimar
is a type of
headscarf
. The
niqāb
and
burqa
are two kinds of veils that cover
most of the face except for a slit or hole for the eyes.
The Afghan
burqa covers the entire body, obscuring
the face completely, except for a grille or netting over the eyes to allow the
wearer to see. The
boshiya
is a veil that may be worn over a
headscarf; it covers the entire face and is made of a sheer fabric so the wearer
is able to see through it. It has been suggested that
the practice of wearing a veil
– uncommon among
the Arab
tribes prior to the rise of
Islam
– originated in the
Byzantine Empire
, and then spread.
The wearing of head and especially face coverings by Muslim women has raised
political issues in the West; see for example
Hijab controversy in Quebec
,
Islamic dress controversy in Europe
,
Islamic scarf controversy in France
, and
United Kingdom debate over veils
. There is also
high debate of the veil in
Turkey
, a
Muslim majority country
but secular, which
banned the headscarves in universities and government buildings, due to the
türban (a Turkish styled headscarf) being viewed as
a political symbol of Islam
, see
Headscarf controversy in Turkey
.
Frances Perkins
wearing a veil
after the death of U.S. President
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Hats
Veils pinned to hats have survived the changing fashions of the centuries and
are still common today on formal occasions that require women to wear a hat.
However, these veils are generally made of netting or another material not
actually designed to hide the face from view, even if the veil can be pulled
down.
Wedding veils
An occasion on which a Western woman is likely to wear a veil is on her
white wedding
day.
Brides
once used to wear their hair flowing
down their back at their wedding to symbolise their virginity. Veils covering
the hair and face became a symbolic reference to the virginity of the bride
thereafter. Often in modern weddings, the ceremony of removing a face veil after
the wedding to present the groom with a virgin bride is skipped, since many
couples have already entered into conjugal relations prior to their wedding
day – the bride either wears no face veil, or it is lifted before the ceremony
begins, but this is not always the case. Further, if a bride is a virgin, she
often wears the face veil through the ceremony, and then either her father lifts
the veil, presenting the bride to her groom, or the groom lifts the veil to
symbolically consummate the marriage, which will later become literal. Brides
who are virgins may make use of the veil to symbolize and emphasize their status
of purity during their wedding however, and if they do, the lifting of the veil
may be ceremonially recognized as the crowning event of the wedding, when the
beauty of the bride is finally revealed to the groom and the guests. It is not
altogether clear that the wedding veil is a non-religious use of this item,
since weddings have almost always had religious underpinnings, especially in the
West. Veils, however, had been used in the West for weddings long before this.
Roman brides, for instance, wore an intensely flame-colored and fulsome veil,
called the flammeum, apparently intended to protect the bride from
evil spirits
on her wedding day. Later, the
so-called velatio virginum became part of the rite of the
consecration of virgins
, the liturgical rite in
which the church sets aside the virgin as a sacred person who belongs only to
Christ.
In the 19th century, wedding veils came to symbolize the woman’s
virginity
and
modesty
. The tradition of a veiled bride’s face
continues even today wherein, a virgin bride, especially in Christian or Jewish
culture, enters the marriage ritual with a veiled face and head, and remains
fully veiled, both head and face, until the ceremony concludes. After the full
conclusion of the wedding ceremony, either the bride’s father lifts the veil
giving the bride to the groom who then kisses her, or the new groom lifts her
face veil in order to kiss her, which symbolizes the groom’s right to enter into
conjugal relations with his bride.
The lifting of the veil was often a part of ancient wedding ritual,
symbolizing the
groom
taking possession of the wife, either as
lover or as property, or the revelation of the bride by her parents to the groom
for his approval.
A bride wearing a typical wedding veil
In Judaism, the tradition of wearing a veil dates back to biblical times.
According to the Torah in
Genesis 24:65
, Isaac is brought Rebekah to
marry by his father Abraham’s servant. It is important to note that Rebekah did
not veil herself when traveling with her lady attendants and Abraham’s servant
and his men to meet Isaac, but she only did so when Isaac was approaching. Just
before the wedding ceremony the
badeken
or bedeken is held. The groom places
the veil over the bride’s face, and either he or the officiating Rabbi gives her
a blessing. The veil stays on her face until just before the end of the wedding
ceremony – when they are legally married according to Jewish law – then the
groom helps lift the veil from off her face.
The most often cited interpretation for the
badeken
is that, according to
Genesis 29
, when Jacob went to marry Rachel,
his father in law Laban tricked him into marrying Leah, Rachel’s older and
homlier sister. Many say that the veiling ceremony takes place to make sure that
the groom is marrying the right bride. Some say that as the groom places the
veil over his bride, he makes an implicit promise to clothe and protect her.
Finally, by covering her face, the groom recognizes that he his marrying the
bride for her inner beauty; while looks will fade with time, his love will be
everlasting. In some ultra-orthodox traditions the bride wears an opaque veil as
she is escorted down the aisle to meet her groom. This shows her complete
willingness to enter into the marriage and her absolute trust that she is
marrying the right man. In Judaism, a wedding is not considered valid unless the
bride willingly consents to it.
In ancient Judaism
the lifting of the veil took place just
prior to the consummation of the marriage in sexual union. The uncovering or
unveiling that takes place in the
wedding ceremony
is a symbol of what will take
place in the marriage bed. Just as the two become one through their words spoken
in wedding vows, so these words are a sign of the physical oneness that they
will consummate later on. The lifting of the veil is a symbol and an
anticipation of this.
In the
Western world
,
St. Paul’s
words concerning how marriage
symbolizes the union of Christ and His Church may underlie part of the tradition
of veiling in the marriage ceremony.
Dance
Veils are part of the stereotypical images of courtesans and harem women.
Here, the mysterious veil hints at sensuality, an example being the dance of the
seven veils. This is the context into which belly dancing veils fall, with a
large repertoire of ways to wear and hold the veil, framing the body and
accentuating movements. Dancing veils can be as small as a scarf or two, silk
veils mounted on fans, a half circle, three-quarter circle, full circle, a
rectangle up to four feet long, and as large as huge Isis wings with sticks for
extensions. There is also a giant canopy type veil used by a group of dancers.
Veils are made of rayon, silk, polyester, mylar and other fabrics (never wool,
though). Rarely used in Egyptian cabaret style, veil dancing has always played
an important part in the international world of belly dance, extending the range
of the dance and offering lovely transitory imagery.
Courtesans
Conversely, veils are often part of the stereotypical image of the
courtesan
and
harem
woman. Here, rather than the virginity of
the bride’s veil, modesty of the Muslim scarf or the piety of the nun’s
headdress, the mysterious veil hints at sensuality and the unknown. An example
of the veil’s erotic potential is the
dance of the seven veils
.
In this context, the term may refer to a piece of sheer cloth approximately 3
x 1.5 metres, sometimes trimmed with sequins or coins, which is used in various
styles of belly dancing
. A large repertoire of ways to
wear and hold the veil exists, many of which are intended to frame the body from
the perspective of the audience.
Veils for men
Among the
Tuareg
,
Songhai
,
Moors
,
Hausa
. and
Fulani
of
West Africa
, women do not traditionally wear
the veil, while men do. The men’s facial covering originates from the belief
that such action wards off evil spirits, but most probably relates to protection
against the harsh desert sands as well; in any event, it is a firmly established
tradition. Men begin wearing a veil at age 25 which conceals their entire face
excluding their eyes. This veil is never removed, even in front of family
members.
In India
,
Pakistan
,
Bangladesh
, and
Nepal
, men wear a
sehra
on their wedding day. This is a male
veil covering the whole face and neck. The sehra is made from either flowers,
beads, tinsel, dry leaves, or coconuts. The most common sehra is made from fresh
marigolds. The groom wears this throughout the day concealing his face even
during the wedding ceremony. In India today you can see the groom arriving on a
horse with the sehra wrapped around his head.
Etymology
“Veil” came from Latin
vēlum, which also means “sail“.
There are two theories about the origin of the word vēlum:-
- Via the “covering” meaning, from (Indo-European
root
) *wel– = “to cover, to
enclose”.
- Via the “sail” meaning, from Indo-European *weghslom, from root *wegh-
= “way” or “carry in a vehicle”, because it makes the ship move.
The Roman Empire (Latin:
Imperium Romanum) was the post-Republican
period of the
ancient Roman civilization
, characterised by an
autocratic
form of government and large
territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean.
The Roman Empire at its greatest extent,
during the reign of Trajan
in 117 AD
The 500-year-old
Roman Republic
, which preceded it, had been
weakened and
subverted
through several
civil wars
. Several events are commonly
proposed to mark the transition from Republic to Empire, including
Julius Caesar
‘s appointment as perpetual
dictator
(44 BC), the
Battle of Actium
(2
September 31 BC), and the Roman Senate’s granting to
Octavian
the
honorific
Augustus
(16 January
27 BC).
Roman expansion began in the days of the Republic, but the Empire reached its
greatest extent under Emperor
Trajan
: during his reign (98 to 117 AD) the
Roman Empire controlled approximately 6.5 million km2
of land surface. Because of the Empire’s vast extent and long endurance, the
institutions and culture of Rome had a profound and lasting influence on the
development of language, religion, architecture, philosophy, law, and forms of
government in the territory it governed, particularly Europe, and by means of
European expansionism throughout the modern world.
In the late 3rd century AD,
Diocletian
established the practice of dividing
authority between four co-emperors (known as the
tetrarchy
) in order to better secure the vast
territory, putting an end to the
Crisis of the Third Century
. During the
following decades the Empire was often divided along an East/West axis. After
the death of
Theodosius I
in 395 it was divided for the last
time.
The
Western Roman Empire
collapsed
in 476 as
Romulus Augustus
was forced to abdicate to the
Germanic
warlord
Odoacer
. The Eastern Roman or
Byzantine Empire
ended in 1453 with the death
of
Constantine XI
and the
capture of Constantinople
to
Mehmed II
, leader of the
Ottoman Turks
.
Government
Emperor
The powers of an emperor (his
imperium
) existed, in theory at least, by
virtue of his “tribunician powers” (potestas tribunicia) and his
“proconsular powers” (imperium proconsulare). In theory, the tribunician
powers (which were similar to those of the
Plebeian Tribunes
under the old republic) made
the Emperor’s person and office sacrosanct, and gave the Emperor authority over
Rome’s civil government, including the power to preside over and to control the
Senate.
The proconsular powers (similar to those of military governors, or
Proconsuls
, under the old Republic) gave him
authority over the Roman army. He was also given powers that, under the
Republic, had been reserved for the
Senate
and the
assemblies
, including the right to declare war,
to ratify treaties, and to negotiate with foreign leaders.
The emperor also had the authority to carry out a range of duties that had
been performed by the
censors
, including the power to control Senate
membership. In addition, the emperor controlled the
religious institutions
, since, as emperor, he
was always
Pontifex Maximus
and a member of each of
the four major priesthoods. While these distinctions were clearly defined during
the early Empire, eventually they were lost, and the emperor’s powers became
less constitutional and more monarchical.
Realistically, the main support of an emperor’s power and authority was the
military. Being paid by the imperial treasury, the legionaries also swore an
annual military oath of loyalty towards him, called the
Sacramentum
.
The death of an emperor led to a crucial period of uncertainty and crisis. In
theory the Senate was entitled to choose the new emperor, but most emperors
chose their own successors, usually a close family member. The new emperor had
to seek a swift acknowledgement of his new status and authority in order to
stabilize the political landscape. No emperor could hope to survive, much less
to reign, without the allegiance and loyalty of the
Praetorian Guard
and of the legions. To secure
their loyalty, several emperors paid the
donativum
, a monetary reward.
Senate
While the
Roman assemblies
continued to meet after the
founding of the Empire, their powers were all transferred to the
Roman Senate
, and so senatorial decrees (senatus
consulta) acquired the full force of law.
In theory, the Emperor and the Senate were two equal branches of government,
but the actual authority of the Senate was negligible and it was largely a
vehicle through which the Emperor disguised his autocratic powers under a cloak
of republicanism. Although the Senate still commanded much prestige and respect,
it was largely a glorified
rubber stamp
institution. Stripped of most of
its powers, the Senate was largely at the Emperor’s mercy.
Many emperors showed a certain degree of respect towards this ancient
institution, while others were notorious for ridiculing it. During Senate
meetings, the Emperor sat between the two
consuls
,[18]
and usually acted as the presiding officer. Higher ranking senators spoke before
lower ranking senators, although the Emperor could speak at any time.[18]
By the 3rd century, the Senate had been reduced to a glorified municipal body.
Senators and
equestrians
No emperor could rule the Empire without the Senatorial order and the
Equestrian order
. Most of the more important
posts and offices of the government were reserved for the members of these two
aristocratic orders. It was from among their ranks that the provincial
governors, legion commanders, and similar officials were chosen.
These two classes were hereditary[citation
needed] and mostly closed to outsiders. Very
successful and favoured individuals could enter, but this was a rare occurrence.
The career of a young aristocrat was influenced by his family connections and
the favour of patrons. As important as ability, knowledge, skill, or competence,
patronage was considered vital for a successful career and the highest posts and
offices required the Emperor’s favour and trust.
Senatorial order
The son of a senator was expected to follow the
Cursus honorum
, a
career ladder
, and the more prestigious
positions were restricted to senators only. A senator also had to be wealthy;
one of the basic requirements was the wealth of 12,000 gold
aurei
(about 100 kg of gold), a figure which
would later be raised with the passing of centuries.
Equestrian order
Below the Senatorial order was the Equestrian order. The requirements and
posts reserved for this class, while perhaps not so prestigious, were still very
important. Some of the more vital posts, like the governorship of
Egypt
(Latin Aegyptus), were even
forbidden to the members of the Senatorial order and available only to
equestrians.
Military
Legions
During and after the civil war, Octavian reduced the huge number of the
legions
(over 60) to a much more manageable and
affordable size (28). Several legions, particularly those with doubtful
loyalties, were simply disbanded. Other legions were amalgamated, a fact
suggested by the title Gemina (Twin).
In AD 9, Germanic tribes wiped out three full legions in the
Battle of the Teutoburg Forest
. This disastrous
event reduced the number of the legions to 25. The total of the legions would
later be increased again and for the next 300 years always be a little above or
below 30.
Augustus also created the
Praetorian Guard
: nine
cohorts
ostensibly to maintain the public peace
which were garrisoned in Italy. Better paid than the legionaries, the
Praetorians also served less time; instead of serving the standard 25 years of
the legionaries, they retired after 16 years of service.
Auxilia
While the
auxilia
(Latin: auxilia = supports) are
not as famous as the legionaries, they were of major importance. Unlike the
legionaries, the auxilia were recruited from among the non-citizens. Organized
in smaller units of roughly cohort strength, they were paid less than the
legionaries, and after 25 years of service were rewarded with
Roman citizenship
, also extended to their sons.
According to Tacitus
there were roughly as many auxiliaries
as there were legionaries. Since at this time there were 25 legions of around
5,000 men each, the auxilia thus amounted to around 125,000 men, implying
approximately 250 auxiliary regiments.
Navy
The Roman navy
(Latin: Classis, lit.
“fleet”) not only aided in the supply and transport of the legions, but also
helped in the protection of the frontiers in the rivers
Rhine
and
Danube
. Another of its duties was the
protection of the very important maritime trade routes against the threat of
pirates. Therefore it patrolled the whole of the Mediterranean, parts of the
North Atlantic
(coasts of Hispania, Gaul, and
Britannia), and had also a naval presence in the
Black Sea
. Nevertheless the army was considered
the senior and more prestigious branch.
Provinces
The
Temple of Bacchus
in
Baalbec
,
Lebanon
Until the Tetrarchy
(296 AD) Roman provinces (lat.
provincae) were administrative and territorial units of the Roman Empire
outside of
Italy
. In the old days of the Republic the
governorships of the provinces were traditionally awarded to members of the
Senatorial Order
. Augustus’ reforms changed
this policy.
Imperial provinces
Augustus created the
Imperial provinces
. Most, but not all, of the
Imperial provinces were relatively recent conquests and located at the borders.
Thereby the overwhelming majority of legions, which were stationed at the
frontiers, were under direct Imperial control. Very important was the
Imperial province of Egypt
, the major
breadbasket
of the Empire, whose
grain supply
was vital to feed the masses in
Rome. It was considered the personal fiefdom of the Emperor, and Senators were
forbidden to even visit this province. The governor of Egypt and the commanders
of any legion stationed there were not from the Senatorial Order, but were
chosen by the Emperor from among the members of the lower
Equestrian Order
.
Senatorial provinces
The old traditional policy continued largely unchanged in the
Senatorial provinces
. Due to their location,
away from the borders, and to the fact that they were under longer Roman
sovereignty and control, these provinces were largely peaceful and stable. Only
a single legion was based in a Senatorial province:
Legio III Augusta
, stationed in the Senatorial
province of
Africa
(modern northern Algeria).
The status of a province was subject to change; it could change from
Senatorial towards Imperial, or vice-versa. This happened several times
[26]
during Augustus’ reign. Another
trend was to create new provinces, mostly by dividing older ones, or by
expanding the Empire.
Religion
The
Pantheon
, the present structure
built during
Hadrian
‘s reign, was dedicated to
the worship of all Roman deities.
As the Empire expanded, and came to include people from a variety of
cultures, the worship of an ever increasing number of
deities
was tolerated and accepted. The
Imperial government, and the Romans in general, tended to be very tolerant
towards most religions and cults, so long as they did not cause trouble. This
could easily be accepted by other faiths as Roman liturgy and ceremonies were
frequently tailored to fit local culture and identity. Since the Romans
practiced polytheism they were also able to easily assimilate the gods of the
peoples the Empire conquered.
An individual could attend to both the Roman gods representing his Roman
identity and his own personal faith, which was considered part of his personal
identity. There were periodic persecutions of various religions at various
points in time, most notably that of Christians. As the historian
Edward Gibbon
noted, however, most of the
recorded histories of Christian persecutions come to us through the Christian
church, which had an incentive to exaggerate the degree to which the
persecutions occurred. The non-Christian contemporary sources only mention the
persecutions passingly and without assigning great importance to them.
Imperial cult
The
Augustus of Prima Porta
,
showing
Augustus
in military outfit holding
a consular baton (now broken off)
In an effort to enhance loyalty, the inhabitants of the Empire were called to
participate in the
Imperial cult
to revere (usually deceased)
emperors as demigods
. Few emperors claimed to be Gods while
living, with the few exceptions being emperors who were widely regarded at the
time to be insane (such as
Caligula
). Doing so in the early Empire would
have risked revealing the shallowness of what the Emperor
Augustus
called the “restored Republic” and
would have had a decidedly eastern quality to it. Since the tool was mostly one
the Emperor used to control his subjects, its usefulness would have been
greatest in the chaotic later Empire, when the emperors were often Christians
and unwilling to participate in the practice.
Usually, an emperor was deified after his death by his successor in an
attempt by that successor to enhance his own prestige. This practice can be
misunderstood, however, since “deification” was to the ancient world what
canonization is to the Christian world. Likewise, the term “god” had a different
context in the ancient world. This could be seen during the years of the
Roman Republic
with religio-political practices
such as the disbanding of a Senate session if it was believed the gods
disapproved of the session or wished a particular vote. Deification was one of
the many honors a dead emperor was entitled to, as the Romans (more than modern
societies) placed great prestige on honors and national recognitions.
The importance of the Imperial cult slowly grew, reaching its peak during the
Crisis of the Third Century
. Especially in the
eastern half of the Empire, imperial cults grew very popular. As such it was one
of the major agents of
romanization
. The central elements of the cult
complex were next to a temple; a
theatre
or
amphitheatre
for gladiator displays and other
games and a public bath complex
. Sometimes the imperial
cult was added to the cults of an existing temple or celebrated in a special
hall in the bath complex.
The seriousness of this belief is unclear. Some Romans ridiculed the notion
that a Roman emperor was to be considered a living god, or would even make fun
of the deification of an emperor after his death.
Seneca the Younger
parodied the notion of
apotheosis in his only known satire
The Pumpkinification of Claudius
, in which
the clumsy and ill-spoken
Claudius
is transformed not into a god, but a
pumpkin or gourd
. An element of mockery was present even
at Claudius’s funeral, and
Vespasian
‘s purported last words were Væ,
puto deus fio, “Oh dear! I think I’m becoming a god!”.
Absorption of
foreign cults
Since Roman religion did not have a core belief that excluded other
religions, several foreign gods and cults became popular.
The worship of Cybele
was the earliest, introduced from around
200 BC. Isis
and
Osiris
were introduced from Egypt a century
later. Bacchus
and
Sol Invictus
were quite important and
Mithras
became very popular with the military.
Several of these were
Mystery cults
. In the 1st century BC
Julius Caesar
granted Jews the freedom to
worship in Rome as a reward for their help in Alexandria.
Controversial
religions
Druids
Druids
were considered as essentially
non-Roman: a prescript of
Augustus
forbade Roman citizens to practice
“druidical” rites.
Pliny
reports that under
Tiberius
the druids were suppressed—along with
diviners and physicians—by a decree of the Senate, and
Claudius
forbade their rites completely in
AD 54.
Judaism
While Judaism was largely accepted, as long as Jews paid the
Jewish Tax
after 70 AD, there was
anti-Judaism in the pre-Christian Roman Empire
and there were several
Jewish-Roman wars
.
The Crisis under
Caligula
(37–41) has been proposed as the
“first open break between Rome and the Jews”, even though problems were already
evident during the
Census of Quirinius
in 6 and under
Sejanus
(before 31).
Until the rebellion in Judea in AD 66, Jews were generally protected. To get
around Roman laws banning secret societies and to allow their freedom of
worship, Julius Caesar declared Synagogues were colleges. Tiberius forbade
Judaism in Rome but they quickly returned to their former protected status.
Claudius expelled Jews from the city; however, the passage of Suetonius is
ambiguous: “Because the Jews at Rome caused continuous disturbances at the
instigation of Chrestus he [Claudius] expelled them from the city.” Chrestus
has been identified as another form of Christus; the disturbances may
have been related to the
arrival of the first Christians
, and that the
Roman authorities, failing to distinguish between the Jews and the early
Christians, simply decided to expel them all.
Historians debate whether or not the Roman government distinguished between
Christians and Jews
prior to Nerva’s
modification of the
Fiscus Judaicus
in 96. From then on, practising
Jews paid the tax; Christians did not.[34]
Christianity
The Christian Martyrs’ Last Prayer, by
Jean-Léon Gérôme
(1883). Roman
Colosseum
.
Christianity
emerged in
Roman Judea
as a
Jewish religious sect
in the 1st century AD.
The religion gradually spread out of
Jerusalem
, initially establishing major bases
in first Antioch
, then
Alexandria
, and over time throughout the Empire
as well as beyond.
Christianity shares numerous traits with other mystery cults that existed in
Rome at the time. Early Christianity placed a strong emphasis on baptism, a
ritual which marked the convert as having been inducted into the mysteries of
the faith. The focus on a belief in salvation and the afterlife was another
major similarity to other mystery cults. The crucial difference between
Christianity and other mystery cults was the
monotheism
of Christianity. Early Christians
thus refused to participate in civic cults because of these monotheistic
beliefs, leading to their persecution.
For the first two centuries of the
Christian era
, Imperial authorities largely
viewed Christianity simply as a Jewish sect rather than a distinct religion. No
emperor issued general laws against the faith or its Church, and persecutions,
such as they were, were carried out under the authority of local government
officials. A surviving letter from
Pliny the Younger
, governor of Bythinia, to the
Emperor Trajan
describes his persecution and executions
of Christians; Trajan notably responded that Pliny should not seek out
Christians nor heed anonymous denunciations, but only punish open Christians who
refused to recant.
Suetonius
mentions in passing that during the
reign of Nero
“punishment was inflicted on the
Christians, a class of men given to a new and mischievous
superstition
” (superstitionis novae ac
maleficae). He gives no reason for the punishment.
Tacitus
reports that after the
Great Fire of Rome
in AD 64, some among the
population held Nero responsible and that the emperor attempted to deflect blame
onto the Christians.
One of the earliest persecutions occurred in
Gaul at
Lyon in 177
. Persecution was often local and
sporadic, and some Christians welcomed
martyrdom as a testament of faith
.[39]
The
Decian persecution
(246–251) was a serious
threat to the Church, but while it potentially undermined the religious
hierarchy in urban centers, ultimately it served to strengthen Christian
defiance.[40]
Diocletian
undertook what was to be the
most severe and last major persecution of Christians
,
lasting from 303 to 311. Christianity had become too widespread to suppress, and
in 313, the
Edict of Milan
made tolerance the official
policy.
Constantine I
(sole ruler 324–337) became the
first Christian emperor, and in 380
Theodosius I
established Christianity as the
official religion.
By the 5th century Christian hegemony had rapidly changed the Empire’s
identity even as the Western provinces collapsed. Those who practiced the
traditional polytheistic religions were persecuted, as were Christians regarded
as heretics by the authorities in power.
Languages
The language of Rome before its expansion was
Latin
, and this became the empire’s official
language. By the time of the imperial period Latin had developed two
registers
: the “high” written
Classical Latin
and the “low” spoken
Vulgar Latin
. While Classical Latin remained
relatively stable, even through the
Middle Ages
, Vulgar Latin as with any spoken
language was fluid and evolving. Vulgar Latin became the
lingua franca
in the western provinces, later
evolving into the modern
Romance languages
:
Italian
,
French
,
Portuguese
,
Spanish
,
Romanian
, etc. Greek and Classical Latin were
the languages of literature, scholarship, and education.
Although Latin remained the most widely spoken language in the West, through
to the
fall of Rome
and for some centuries afterwards,
in the East the
Greek language
was the literary language and
the lingua franca. The Romans generally did not attempt to supplant local
languages. They generally left established customs in place and only gradually
introduced typical Roman cultural elements including the Latin language.[43]
Along with Greek, many other languages of different tribes were used but almost
without expression in writing.
Greek was already widely spoken in many cities in the east, and as such, the
Romans were quite content to retain it as an administrative language there
rather than impede bureaucratic efficiency. Hence, two official secretaries
served in the Roman Imperial court, one charged with correspondence in Latin and
the other with correspondence in Greek for the East.[44]
Thus in the Eastern Province, as with all provinces, original languages were
retained.
Moreover, the process of hellenisation widened its scope during the Roman
period, for the Romans perpetuated
“Hellenistic”
culture,[47][48][nb
4] but with all the trappings of
Roman
improvements. This further spreading of
“Hellenistic” culture (and therefore language) was largely due to the extensive
infrastructure (in the form of entertainment, health, and education amenities,
and extensive transportation networks, etc.) put in place by the Romans and
their tolerance of, and inclusion of, other cultures, a characteristic which set
them apart from the xenophobic nature of the Greeks preceding them.
Since the Roman annexation of Greece in 146 BC, the Greek language gradually
obtained a unique place in the Roman world, owing initially to the large number
of Greek slaves in Roman households. In Rome itself Greek became the second
language of the educated elite.It became the common language in the early
Church
(as its major centers in the early
Christian period were in the East), and the language of scholarship and the
arts.
However, due to the presence of other widely spoken languages in the densely
populated east, such as
Coptic
,
Syriac
,
Armenian
,
Aramaic
and
Phoenician
(which was also extensively spoken
in North Africa), Greek never took as strong a hold beyond Asia Minor (some
urban enclaves notwithstanding) as Latin eventually did in the west. This is
partly evident in the extent to which the derivative languages are spoken today.
Like Latin, the language gained a
dual nature
with the literary language, an
Attic Greek
variant, existing alongside spoken
language, Koine Greek
, which evolved into
Medieval
or Byzantine Greek (Romaic).
By the 4th century AD, Greek no longer held such dominance over Latin in the
arts and sciences as it had previously, resulting to a great extent from the
growth of the western provinces. This was true also of Christian literature,
reflected, for example, in the publication in the early 5th century AD of the
Vulgate Bible
, the first officially accepted
Latin Bible
. As the Western Empire
declined
, the number of people who spoke both
Greek and Latin declined as well, contributing greatly to the future
East
–West
/
Orthodox
–Catholic
cultural divide in Europe.
Important as both languages were, today the
descendants of Latin
are widely spoken in many
parts of the world, while the Greek dialects are limited mostly to Greece,
Cyprus
, and small enclaves in
Turkey
and
Southern Italy
(where the
Eastern Empire
retained control for several
more centuries). To some degree this can be attributed to the fact that the
western provinces fell mainly to “Latinised”
Christian
tribes whereas the eastern provinces
fell to Muslim Arabs and Turks for whom Greek held less cultural significance.
Culture
Life in the Roman Empire revolved around the city of Rome, and its famed
seven hills
. The city also had several
theatres
,
gymnasia
, and many
taverns
,
baths
and
brothels
. Throughout the territory under Rome’s
control, residential architecture ranged from very modest houses to
country villas
, and in the
capital city
of Rome, to the residences on the
elegant
Palatine Hill
, from which the word “palace”
is derived. The vast majority of the population lived in the city centre, packed
into apartment blocks.
Most Roman towns and cities had a
forum
and temples, as did the city of Rome
itself.
Aqueducts
were built to bring water to urban
centres[55]
and served as an avenue to import
wine
and
oil
from abroad. Landlords generally resided in
cities and their estates were left in the care of farm managers. To stimulate a
higher labour productivity, many landlords freed a large numbers of slaves. By
the time of Augustus, cultured Greek household slaves taught the Roman young
(sometimes even the girls). Greek sculptures adorned Hellenistic landscape
gardening on the Palatine or in the
villas
.
Many aspects of Roman culture were taken from the
Etruscans
and the
Greeks
. In
architecture
and
sculpture
, the difference between Greek models
and Roman paintings are apparent. The chief Roman contributions to architecture
were the arch
and the
dome.
Roman public baths
(Thermae)
in
Bath
, England (Aquae
Sulis in the Roman province of
Britannia
).
The centre of the early social structure was the family, which was not only
marked by
blood relations
but also by the legally
constructed relation of patria potestas. The
Pater familias
was the absolute head of the
family; he was the master over his wife, his children, the wives of his sons,
the nephews, the slaves and the freedmen, disposing of them and of their goods
at will, even putting them to death. Originally, only patrician aristocracy
enjoyed the privilege of forming familial clans, or gens, as legal
entities; later, in the wake of political struggles and warfare, clients were
also enlisted. Thus, such plebian gentes were the first formed, imitating
their patrician counterparts.
Slavery
and slaves were part of the social
order; there were
slave markets
where they could be bought and
sold. Many slaves were freed by the masters for services rendered; some slaves
could save money to buy their freedom. Generally
mutilation
and murder of slaves was prohibited
by legislation. It is estimated that over 25% of the Roman population was
enslaved Professor
Gerhard Rempel
from the
Western New England College
claims that in the
city of Rome alone, during the Empire, there were about 400,000 slaves.
The city of Rome had a place called the
Campus Martius
(“Field of Mars”), which was a
sort of drill ground for Roman soldiers. Later, the Campus became Rome’s track
and field playground. In the campus, the youth assembled to play and exercise,
which included jumping,
wrestling
,
boxing
and
racing
.
Riding
, throwing, and swimming were also
preferred physical activities.
In the countryside, pastimes also included fishing and hunting.
Board games
played in Rome included
Dice (Tesserae or
Tali
), Roman Chess (Latrunculi),
Roman Checkers
(Calculi),
Tic-tac-toe
(Terni Lapilli), and
Ludus duodecim scriptorum
and Tabula,
predecessors of backgammon. There were several other activities to keep people
engaged like chariot races, musical and theatrical performances,
Clothing,
dining, and the arts
Fresco of a Roman woman from
Pompeii
, c. AD 50.
Roman clothing fashions changed little from the late Republic to the end of
the Western empire 600 years later. The cloth and the dress distinguished one
class of people from the other class. The tunic worn by
plebeians
(common people) like shepherds and
slaves was made from coarse and dark material, whereas the
tunic
worn by
patricians
was of linen or white wool. A
magistrate would wear the tunica augusticlavi; senators wore a tunic with
broad stripes, called tunica laticlavi. Military tunics were shorter than
the ones worn by civilians. Boys, up until the festival of Liberalia, wore the
toga praetexta, which was a toga with a crimson or purple border. The
toga virilis, (or toga pura) was worn by men over the age of 16 to
signify their citizenship in Rome.
The toga picta was worn by triumphant generals and had embroidery of
their skill on the battlefield. The toga pulla was worn when in mourning.
Even footwear indicated a person’s social status: patricians wore red and orange
sandals, senators had brown footwear, consuls had white shoes, and soldiers wore
heavy boots. Men typically wore a
toga, and women a
stola
. The woman’s stola looked
different from a toga, and was usually brightly coloured. The Romans also
invented
socks
for those soldiers required to fight on
the northern frontiers, sometimes worn in sandals.
In the later empire after
Diocletian
‘s reforms, clothing worn by soldiers
and non-military government bureaucrats became highly decorated, with woven or
embroidered strips, clavi, and circular roundels, orbiculi, added
to tunics and cloaks. These decorative elements usually consisted of geometrical
patterns and stylised plant motifs, but could include human or animal figures.
The use of silk also increased steadily and most courtiers of the later empire
wore elaborate silk robes. Heavy military-style belts were worn by bureaucrats
as well as soldiers, revealing the general militarization of late Roman
government. Trousers—considered barbarous garments worn by Germans and
Persians—were only adopted partially near the end of the empire in a sign for
conservatives of cultural decay. Early medieval kings and aristocrats dressed
like late Roman generals, not like the older toga-clad senatorial tradition.
Roman fresco with banquet scene from the Casa dei Casti Amanti
(IX 12, 6-8) in Pompeii.
Romans had simple food habits. Staple food was simple, generally consumed at
around 11 o’clock, and consisted of bread, salad, cheese, fruits, nuts, and cold
meat left over from the dinner the night before. The Roman poet,
Horace
mentions another Roman favourite, the
olive
, in reference to his own diet, which he
describes as very simple: “As for me, olives,
endives
, and smooth
mallows
provide sustenance.” The family ate
together, sitting on stools around a table. Fingers were used to eat solid foods
and spoons were used for soups.
Wine was considered a staple drink, consumed at all meals and occasions by
all classes and was quite cheap. Many types of drinks involving grapes and honey
were consumed as well. Drinking on an empty stomach was regarded as boorish and
a sure sign for
alcoholism
, whose debilitating physical and
psychological effects were known to the Romans. An accurate accusation of being
an alcoholic was an effective way to discredit political rivals.
Woman playing a
kithara
, a wall mural from
Boscoreale
, dated 40–30 BC
Roman literature was from its very inception influenced heavily by Greek
authors. Some of the earliest works we possess are of historical epics telling
the early military history of Rome. As the empire expanded, authors began to
produce poetry, comedy, history, and tragedy.
Virgil
represents the pinnacle of Roman epic
poetry. His Aeneid
tells the story of flight of Aeneas
from Troy
and his settlement of the city that would
become Rome. The genre of satire was common in Rome, and satires were written
by, among others,
Juvenal
and
Persius
. Many Roman homes were decorated with
landscapes by Greek artists. Portrait sculpture during the period utilized
youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and
idealism. Advancements were also made in relief sculptures, often depicting
Roman victories.
Music was a major part of everyday life. The word itself derives from
Greek
μουσική (mousike), “(art)
of the
Muses
“. Many private and public events were
accompanied by music, ranging from nightly dining to military parades and
maneuvers. In a discussion of any ancient music, however, non-specialists and
even many musicians have to be reminded that much of what makes our modern music
familiar to us is the result of developments only within the last 1,000 years;
thus, our ideas of melody, scales, harmony, and even the instruments we use
would not be familiar to Romans who made and listened to music many centuries
earlier.
Over time, Roman architecture was modified as their urban requirements
changed, and the
civil engineering
and building
construction
technology
became developed and refined. The
Roman concrete
has remained a riddle, and even
after more than 2,000 years some Roman structures still stand magnificently.[76]
The architectural style of the capital city was emulated by other urban centres
under Roman control and influence.
Education
Following various military conquests in the
Greek East
, Romans adapted a number of Greek
educational precepts to their own system. Home was often the learning centre,
where children were taught
Roman law
,
customs
, and physical training to prepare the
boys for eventual recruitment into the
Roman army
. Conforming to discipline was a
point of great emphasis. Girls generally received instruction[78]
from their mothers in the art of
spinning
,
weaving
, and
sewing
.
Education nominally began at the age of six. During the next six to seven
years, both boys and girls were taught the basics of
reading
,
writing
and
arithmetic
. From the age of twelve, they would
be learning Latin
,
Greek
,
grammar
and
literature
, followed by training for
public speaking
.
Oratory
was an art to be practised and learnt,
and good orators commanded respect. To become an effective orator was one of the
objectives of education
and
learning
. In some cases, services of gifted
slaves were utilized for imparting education.
Economy
The invention and widespread application of
hydraulic mining
, namely
hushing
and ground-sluicing, aided by the
ability of the Romans to plan and execute mining operations on a large scale,
allowed various base and precious metals to be extracted on a proto-industrial
scale.
The annual total iron
output is estimated at 82,500 t,
assuming a productive capacity of c. 1.5 kg per capita.[81]
Copper
was produced at an annual rate of
15,000 t, and lead
at 80,000 t,[83]
both production levels not to be paralled until the
Industrial Revolution
;[84]
Spain alone had a 40% share in world lead production. The high lead output was a
by-product of extensive
silver
mining which reached an amount of 200 t
per annum.[86]
At its peak around the mid-2nd century AD, the Roman silver stock is estimated
at 10,000 t, five to ten times larger than the combined silver mass of
medieval Europe
and the
Caliphate
around 800 AD. Any one of the
Imperium’s most important mining provinces produced as much silver as the
contemporary
Han empire
as a whole, and more
gold by an entire order of magnitude.
The high amount of metal coinage in circulation meant that more coined money
was available for trading or saving in the economy (monetization).
Currency
A Roman aureus
struck under Augustus, c.
AD 13–14; the reverse shows
Tiberius
riding on a
quadriga
, celebrating the fifteenth
renewal of his tribunal power.
The imperial government was, as all governments, interested in the issue and
control of the currency in circulation. To mint coins was an important political
act: the image of the ruling emperor appeared on most issues, and coins were a
means of showing his image throughout the empire. Also featured were
predecessors, empresses, other family members, and
heirs apparent
. By issuing coins with the image
of an heir his legitimacy and future succession was proclaimed and reinforced.
Political messages and imperial propaganda such as proclamations of victory and
acknowledgements of loyalty also appeared in certain issues.
Legally only the emperor and the Senate had the authority to mint coins
inside the empire. However the authority of the Senate was mainly in name only.
In general, the imperial government issued gold and silver coins while the
Senate issued bronze coins marked by the legend “SC”, short for
Senatus Consulto “by decree of the Senate”. However, bronze coinage could be
struck without this legend. Some Greek cities were allowed to mint[91]
bronze and certain silver coins, which today are known as Greek Imperials
(also Roman Colonials or Roman Provincials). The imperial mints
were under the control of a chief financial minister, and the provincial mints
were under the control of the imperial provincial procurators. The Senatorial
mints were governed by officials of the Senatorial treasury.
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