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Greek city of
Kaunos in
Caria
Bronze 10mm (1.26 grams) Struck circa 191-168 B.C.
Reference: Sear 4823 var.; SNG Copenhagen 184 var.
Diademed head of
Alexander the Great right.
Single cornucopia; K-AY in field.
You are bidding on the exact item pictured,
provided with a Certificate of Authenticity and Lifetime Guarantee of
Authenticity.
The cornucopia (from Latin cornu copiae) or horn of plenty
is a symbol of abundance and nourishment, commonly a large horn-shaped container
overflowing with produce, flowers, nuts, other edibles, or wealth in some form.
Originating in
classical antiquity
, it has continued as a
symbol in
Western art
, and it is particularly associated
with the
Thanksgiving
holiday in
North America
.
Allegorical
depiction of the Roman
goddess
Abundantia
with a cornucopia, by
Rubens
(ca. 1630)
In Mythology
Mythology
offers multiple
explanations of the origin
of the cornucopia.
One of the best-known involves the birth and nurturance of the infant
Zeus, who had to be hidden from his devouring father
Cronus
. In a cave on
Mount Ida
on the island of
Crete
, baby Zeus was cared for and protected by
a number of divine attendants, including the goat
Amalthea
(“Nourishing Goddess”), who fed him
with her milk. The suckling future king of the gods had unusual abilities and
strength, and in playing with his nursemaid accidentally broke off one of her
horns
, which then had the divine power to
provide unending nourishment, as the foster mother had to the god.
In another myth, the cornucopia was created when
Heracles
(Roman
Hercules
) wrestled with the river god
Achelous
and wrenched off one of his horns;
river gods were sometimes depicted as horned. This version is represented in the
Achelous and Hercules
mural painting
by the
American Regionalist
artist
Thomas Hart Benton
.
The cornucopia became the attribute of several
Greek
and
Roman deities
, particularly those associated
with the harvest, prosperity, or spiritual abundance, such as personifications
of Earth (Gaia
or
Terra
); the child
Plutus
, god of riches and son of the grain
goddess Demeter
; the
nymph
Maia
; and
Fortuna
, the goddess of luck, who had the power
to grant prosperity. In
Roman Imperial cult
, abstract Roman deities who
fostered peace (pax
Romana) and prosperity were also depicted with a cornucopia,
including Abundantia
, “Abundance” personified, and
Annona
, goddess of the
grain supply to the city of Rome
.
Pluto
, the classical ruler of the underworld in
the
mystery religions
, was a giver of agricultural,
mineral and spiritual wealth, and in art often holds a cornucopia to distinguish
him from the gloomier Hades
, who holds a
drinking horn
instead.
Modern depictions
In modern depictions, the cornucopia is typically a hollow, horn-shaped
wicker basket filled with various kinds of festive
fruit
and
vegetables
. In North America, the cornucopia
has come to be associated with
Thanksgiving
and the harvest. Cornucopia is
also the name of the annual November Wine and Food celebration in
Whistler
, British Columbia, Canada. Two
cornucopias are seen in the
flag
and
state seal
of
Idaho
. The Great
Seal
of
North Carolina
depicts Liberty standing and
Plenty holding a cornucopia. The coat of arms of
Colombia
,
Panama
,
Peru and
Venezuela
, and the Coat of Arms of the State of
Victoria, Australia
, also feature the
cornucopia, symbolising prosperity.
The horn of plenty is used on body art and at Halloween, as it is a symbol of
fertility, fortune and abundance.
-
Base of a statue of
Louis XV of France
Alexander III
of Macedon (20/21 July 356 – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as
Alexander the Great from the Greek alexo “to defend, help” +
aner “man”), was a king of
Macedon
, a state in northern
ancient Greece
. Born in
Pella
in 356 BC, Alexander was tutored by
Aristotle
until the age of 16. By the age of
thirty, he had created one of the
largest empires
of the
ancient world
, stretching from the
Ionian Sea
to the
Himalayas
.He was undefeated in battle and is
considered one of history’s most successful commanders.
Alexander
succeeded his father,
Philip II of Macedon
, to the throne in 336 BC
after Philip was assassinated. Upon Philip’s death, Alexander inherited a strong
kingdom and an experienced army. He was awarded the generalship of Greece and
used this authority to launch his father’s military expansion plans. In 334 BC,
he invaded
Persian
-ruled
Asia Minor
and began a
series of campaigns
that lasted ten years.
Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of decisive battles, most
notably the battles of
Issus
and
Gaugamela
. He subsequently overthrew the
Persian King
Darius III
and conquered the entirety of the
Persian Empire
. At that point, his empire
stretched from the
Adriatic Sea
to the
Indus River
.
Seeking to reach the “ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea”, he
invaded India
in 326 BC, but was eventually
forced to turn back at the demand of his troops. Alexander died in
Babylon
in 323 BC, without executing a series
of planned campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of
Arabia
. In the years following his death, a
series of civil wars tore his empire apart, resulting in several states ruled by
the Diadochi
, Alexander’s surviving generals and
heirs.
Alexander’s legacy includes the
cultural diffusion
his conquests engendered. He
founded some
twenty cities that bore his name
, most notably
Alexandria
in Egypt. Alexander’s settlement of
Greek colonists and the resulting spread of Greek culture in the east resulted
in a new
Hellenistic civilization
, aspects of which were
still evident in the traditions of the
Byzantine Empire
in the mid-15th century.
Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mold of
Achilles
, and he features prominently in the
history and myth of Greek and non-Greek cultures. He became the measure against
which military leaders compared themselves, and
military academies
throughout the world still
teach his tactics.
Kaunos (Carian:
Kbid;
Lycian
: Khbide;
Ancient Greek
: Καῦνος;
Latin
: Caunus) was a city of
ancient Caria
and
in Anatolia
,
a few km west of the modern town of
Dalyan
,
Muğla Province
, Turkey
.
The Calbys river (now known as the Dalyan river) was the border between Caria
and Lycia
.
Initially Kaunos was a separate state; then it became a part of Caria and later
still of Lycia.
Kaunos was an important sea port, the history of which is supposed to date
back till the 10th century BC. Because of the formation of
İztuzu
Beach
and the silting of the former Bay of Dalyan (from approx. 200 BC
onwards), Kaunos is now located about 8 km from the coast. The city had two
ports, the southern port at the southeast of Küçük Kale and the inner
port at its northwest (the present Sülüklü Göl, Lake of the
Leeches). The southern port was used from the foundation of the city till
roughly the end of the Hellenistic era, after which it became inaccessible due
to its drying out. The inner or trade port could be closed by chains. The latter
was used till the late days of Kaunos, but due to the silting of the delta and
the ports, Kaunos had by then long lost its important function as a trade port.
After Caria had been captured by Turkish tribes and the serious
malaria
epidemic of the 15th century AD, Kaunos was completely abandoned.
In 1966 prof. Baki Öğün started the excavations of ancient Kaunos. These have
been continued up to the present day, and are now supervised by Prof. Cengiz
Işık.
The archeological research is not limited to Kaunos itself, but is also
carried out in locations nearby e.g. near the Sultaniye Spa where there used to
be a sanctuary devoted to the goddess Leto.
Mythology
According to mythology Kaunos was founded by King
Kaunos
, son of the Carian King
Miletus
and Kyane
,
and grandson of Apollo
. Kaunos had a twin sister by the name of
Byblis
who
developed a deep, unsisterly love for him. When she wrote her brother a love
letter, telling him about her feelings, he decided to flee with some of his
followers to settle elsewhere. His twin sister became mad with sorrow, started
looking for him and tried to commit suicide. Mythology says that the Calbys
river emerged from her tears.
History
The oldest find at the Kaunos archeological site is the neck of a
Protogeometric
amphora
dating back to the 9th century BC, or even earlier. A statue found at the
western gate of the city walls, pieces of imported
Attic
ceramics
and the S-SE oriented city walls show habitation in the 6th century BC. However,
none of the architectural finds at Kaunos itself dates back to earlier than the
4th century BC.
First Persian rule
Ancient city walls with a view of the Dalyan estuary and İztuzu Beach
Acropolis and Theatre seen from Heraklion fortress
Theatre
A street
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Kaunos is first referred to by
Herodotus
in his book
Histories
. He narrates that the Persian general
Harpagus
marches against the Lycians, Carians and Kaunians during the Persian invasion of
546 BC. Herodotus writes that the Kaunians fiercely countered Harpagus’ attacks
but were ultimately defeated. Despite the fact that the Kaunians themselves said
they originated from Crete
, Herodotus doubted this. He thought it was far more likely that the
Kaunians were the original inhabitants of the area because of the similarity
between his own Carian language and that of the Kaunians. He added that there
were, however, great differences between the lifestyles of the Kaunians and
those of their neighbours, the Carians and Lycians. One of the most conspicuous
differences being their social drinking behaviour. It was common practice that
the villagers -men, women and children alike- had get-togethers over a good
glass of wine.
Hellenistic influences
After Xerxes
I
was beaten in the
Second Persian War
and the Persians were gradually withdrawn from the
western Anatolian coast, Kaunos joined the
Delian League
. Initially they only had to pay 1
talent
of tax, an amount that was raised by factor 10 in 425 BC. This
indicates that by then the city had developed into a thriving port, possibly due
to increased agriculture and the demand for Kaunian export articles, such as
salt, salted fish, slaves, pine resin and black mastic – the raw materials for
tar used in boat building and repair – and dried figs. During the 5th and 4th
centuries BC the city started to use the name Kaunos as an alternative for its
ancient name Kbid, because of the increased
Hellenistic
influence. The myth about the foundation of the city probably
dates back to this period.
Second Persian rule
After the
King’s Peace of Antalcidas
in 387 BC, Kaunos again came under Persian rule.
During the period that Kaunos was annexed and added to the province of Caria by
the Persian rulers, the city was drastically changed. This was particularly the
case during the reign of the
satrap
Mausolos
(377-353 BC). The city was enlarged, was modeled with terraces and
walled over a huge area. The city gradually got a Greek character, with an
agora
and temples
dedicated to Greek deities.
Alexander the Great’s
334 BC campaign and the decline of the
Persian Empire
increased the influence of the Hellenistic Empire. After
Alexander’s death there was serious rivalry between the states, which meant that
the strategically located harbour city of Kaunos was faced with invasions and
successive changes of power.
Roman rule
Because of differences between the Hellenistic kingdoms, the
Roman
Empire
was able to expand its influence in the area and annex a considerable
number of Hellenistic kingdoms. In 189 BC the
Roman senate
put Kaunos under the jurisdiction of Rhodes. At that time it
was known as Peraea, Peræa Rhodiorum (Latin form) “the Rhodian Shore”. In
167 BC this led to a revolt by Kaunos and a number of other cities in western
Anatolia against Rhodes. As a result Rome discharged Rhodes from its task. In
129 BC the Romans established the Province of Asia, which covered a large part
of western Anatolia. Kaunos was near the edge of this province and was assigned
to Lycia. In 88 BC
Mithridates
invaded the province, trying to curb further expansion by the
Romans. The Kaunians teamed up with him and killed all the Roman inhabitants of
their city. After the peace of 85 BC they were punished for this action by the
Romans, who again put Kaunos under Rhodian administration. During Roman rule
Kaunos became a prospering sea port. The
amphitheater
of the city was enlarged and
Roman baths
and a
palaestra
were built. The agora fountain was renovated and new temples arose.
Byzantine era
Kaunos was
christianized
at an early date and when the Roman Empire officially adopted
the Christian faith, its name changed into Caunos-Hegia.
Bishops
are
known beginning from the 4th century. Four bishops are mentioned by
Lequien
(I, 981): Basil, who attended the
Council of Seleucia
in 359; Antipater, who attended the
Council of Chalcedon
in 451; Nicolaus, who subscribed the letter to
Emperor Leo
in 458; and Stephanus, who attended the
Council of Nicaea
in 787. The
Synecdemus
of
Hierocles
and most
Notitiae Episcopatuum
, as late as the 12th or 13th century, place it in
Lycia
, as a
suffragan of Myra
.
The see is included, under the Latinized form of its name, Caunus, among the
titular
sees
recognized by the
Catholic Church
. The most recent
titular bishop
of the see died in 1972.
Decline of Kaunos
From 625 AD onwards Kaunos was faced with attacks by Muslim Arabs and
pirates. The 13th century brought invasions by Turkish tribes. Consequently, the
old castle on the
acropolis
was fortified with walls, giving it a typical medieval appearance. In the 14th
century the Turkish tribes had conquered part of Caria, which resulted in a
dramatic decrease in sea trade.
The resulting economical slump caused many Kaunians to move elsewhere. In the
15th century the Turks captured the entire area north of Caria and Kaunos was
hit by a malaria
epidemic
.
This caused the city to be abandoned. The ancient city was badly devastated in
an earthquake and gradually got covered with sand and a dense vegetation. The
city was forgotten until the English archeologist
Hoskyn
found a law tablet, referring to the Council of Kaunos and the
inhabitants of this city. Hoskyn visited the ruins in 1842 and brought the
ancient city under the attention again.
Main archeological
sights
The fishing weir at the foot of the Heraklion of Kaunos
Mosaics next to the domed Byzantine basilica
Kaunos is a site that is interesting for both its archeological and
ecological importance. Situated in the
Köyceğiz-Dalyan Special Environmental Protection Area
, it offers outstanding
vistas and is rich in wildlife. The ruins of the city are near
Dalyan
, on the
west bank of the ancient
Kalbis
river. The main sights at the archeological site itself are:[2]
- The Acropolis (Persikon), situated on a 152 m high rock, fortified with
Byzantine
walls. The city’s
acropolis
was called Imbros and it lay at the foot of Mount Tarbelos
(present-day “Mount Ölemez”).
Adjacent to the acropolis is a smaller fortification, called Heraklion.
Until the 5th century BC this 50 m high cape reached into sea and there were
two ports south and north of it. From the Acropolis there is a stunning view
of the ancient city, Dalyan, the Dalyan river, the estuary and
İztuzu Beach
. From the small fortification, you look down on a
traditional dalyan (fishing weir) situated quite near the former
southern port.
- The theater on the slope of the acropolis featuring both Hellenistic and
Roman characteristics
The theater has a diameter of 75 m and was built at a 27-degree angle.
It had a capacity for 5000 spectators and is in a fairly good state. It is
still occasionally used for performances.
- The palaestra with its
Roman baths
, a
wind measuring platform
and a domed Byzantine
basilica
Archaeological research has shown that the palaestra was built over part
of the old city that most probably had been a place of worship.
The Roman baths served as a social meeting place and were meant to
impress the Kaunians – by their sheer dimensions – of the power of the Roman
Empire. In the Byzantine era the baths were dismantled and the
frigidarium
was re-used as a church. The wind-measuring platform dates
back to 150 BC and was used for city planning. According to the
archeologists Öğün and Işık, it must have consisted of a circular building
with a base diameter of 15.80 m and a top diameter of 13.70 m. The building
has collapsed, however, probably as a result of an earthquake. The measuring
method is therefore not quite clear. In his
De architectura
the Roman architect
Vitruvius
stated that wind-measuring platforms were used to plan streets in accordance
with the prevailing wind direction, in order to keep the air in cities
clean. The domed Byzantine basilica on the palaestra terrace dates back to
the 5th century AD. It was made with building materials taken from previous
buildings on a foundation belonging to a 4th-century building that was
probably also used as a place of worship. The archeologist team think that
its inner walls were plastered and decorated with
frescoes
. The domed basilica is the only remaining Byzantine edifice in
Kaunos that still stands. Next to the basilica
mosaics
have been uncovered.
- The port agora, the
stoa
and the
nymphaeum
The port agora is located at the flat area in front of Sülüklü Lake. It
dates back to the 4th century BC and kept its function as an economic,
political and social meeting place until the end of the Roman era. The
remains of pedestals indicate that there must have been many (bronze)
statues of influential Romans, but these have not been found. Most likely
these were melted down in the Byzantine era, for the archeologists found a
smelting furnace of that period near to the pedestal of a bronze equestrial
statue of the Roman governor of Asia,
Lucius Licinius Murena
. The covered stoa at the north side of the agora
offered sun and rain protection. The stoa was created in the early
Hellenistic era (3rd century BC), but part dates to the early Roman era. The
Nympheon is also Hellenistic, but the fountain basin was extended during the
Roman era. Inscriptions from the period of
Emperor Hadrian
reveal that the toll for merchants and boat owners was
relaxed to compensate for the gradually silting port.
Six temples have been excavated, two of Hellenistic and four of Roman
origin. Probably the terrace temple of the 3rd century BC facing a circle of
columns has the greatest appeal. Inside the circle an obelisk has been
found, which is also depicted on old Kaunian coins. The obelisk was the
symbol of king Kaunos, who according to mythology established the ancient
city bearing his name.
Kaunian rock tombs in Hellenistic style
Outside the official Kaunos archeological site, there are:
- Six rock tombs on the Dalyan river (4th – 2nd century BC), which are
Dalyan’s prime sight
The façades of the rock tombs resemble the fronts of Hellenistic temples
with two
Ionian
pillars, a triangular
pediment
,
an architrave
with toothed
friezes
,
and acroterions
shaped like palm leaves.
The spectacular Kaunos city walls were erected during the reign of
Mausolos in the 4th century BC. They are extraproportional in relation to
the size of Kaunos and its population, presumably because the satrap had
high expectations of the city’s future as a marine and commercial port. The
city walls start west of the inner port and run along the hills N and NW of
the city, to the top of the steep cliff opposite Dalyan centre. There is a
walking track along the wall, starting at the Çandır water station. The
regularly-shaped rectangular blocks and the way the blocks have been
positioned give a fine impression of Hellenistic building techniques. Parts
of the wall are well-kept, other parts have been taken down and rebuilt.
- The
niche tombs
at the port of Çandır
Kaunos is surrounded by ancient
necropoli
, because the ancient Greeks and Romans always buried their
deceased at considerable distance from their homes. The niche tombs were the
most common ones. The ashes of the deceased were put in urns and then placed
in a niche. At the port of Çandır, some km beyond the archeological site of
Kaunos, there are tens of niche tombs hewn from the rock of Kızıltepe.
Notable people
- Protogenes
Greek painter from the 4th century BC
-
Zeno of Caunus
Egyptian secretary from the 3rd century BC
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36°49′35″N
