Maxentius Constantine the Great Enemy Ancient Coin Temple of Roma i46459

The Temple of Venus and Roma — in
Latin
, Templum Veneris et Romae —
is thought to have been the largest
temple
in
Ancient Rome
. Located on the
Velian Hill
, between the eastern edge of the
Forum Romanum
and the
Colosseum
, it was dedicated to the goddesses
Venus Felix
(“Venus the Bringer of Good
Fortune”) and
Roma Aeterna
(“Eternal Rome”). The
architect was the
emperor

Hadrian
and construction began in 121. It was
officially inaugurated by Hadrian in 135, and finished in 141 under
Antoninus Pius
. Damaged by fire in 307,
it was restored with alterations by the emperor
Maxentius
.

History

In order to build the temple, erected on the remnants of the porticoed
vestibule to
Emperor Nero
‘s
Domus Aurea
, the
Colossus of Nero
was moved and placed near the
amphitheatre
, which shortly afterwards became
known as the Colosseum
. Unimpressed by his emperor’s
architectural skills,
Hadrian
‘s most brilliant architect,
Apollodorus
, made a scornful remark on the size
of the seated statues within the cellae, saying that they would surely hurt
their heads if they tried to stand up from their thrones. Apollodorus was
banished and executed not long after this.^[2]

According to the ancient historian Ammianus Marcellinus the temple was among
the great buildings of Rome which astonished the Emperor Constantius II on his
visit to the city in 357.^[3]

Further restoration was performed under
Eugenius
, a short-lived
usurper
(392–394) against
Theodosius I
, whose policy was the restoration
of Pagan cults and temples. However as with many of Rome’s majestic ancient
buildings the temple was later targeted for its rich materials. In 630 Pope
Honorius I with the consent of the Emperor Heraclius, removed the gilt-bronze
tiles from the roof of the temple for the adornment of St. Peter’s.^[4]

 

Temple of Venus and Roma seen from the Colosseum.

A severe earthquake at the beginning of the 9th century is believed to have
destroyed the temple. Around 850
Pope Leo IV
ordered the building of a new
church,
Santa Maria Nova
, on the ruins of the temple.
After a major rebuilding in 1612, this church was renamed Santa Francesca Romana,
incorporating Roma’s cella as the
belltower
. The vast quantity of marble that
once adorned the temple has all but disappeared due to its use as a raw material
for building projects from the Middle Ages onwards. The Italian archaeologist
Rodolfo Amedeo Lanciani makes reference to his discovery of a lime kiln in close
proximity to the temple in his work The Destruction of Ancient Rome.

Presently only a few columns surrounding remain standing in their original
positions, while others that have gone missing have been replaced by
buxus
trees.

Architecture

 

Bronze

follis
struck by
Maxentius
in
Rome
308 – 310 AD. This coin is
commemorating the reconstruction of the temple of Roma following the
fire in 307 AD.
Roma
holding
globe
and
sceptre
seated within
hexastyle

temple
with
shield
on the ground is depicted on
the reverse.

Set on a
platform
measuring 145 metres (476 ft) in
length and 100 metres (328 ft) in width, and stood 29.5 metres (97 ft) tall,
being 31 metres (102 ft) counting the statues, the
peristyle
(also peripteral) building
measured 110 metres (361 ft) in length and 53 metres (174 ft) in width. The
temple itself consisted of two main chambers (cellae),
each housing a cult statue of a god—Venus,
the goddess of love, and
Roma
, the goddess of

Rome, both figures seated on a throne. The cellae were arranged
symmetrically back-to-back. Roma’s cella faced west, looking out over the Forum
Romanum, and Venus’ cella faced east, looking out over the Colosseum. A row of
four columns
(tetrastyle)
lined the entrance to each cella, and the temple was bordered by
colonnaded
entrances ending in staircases that
led down to the Colosseum.

The west and east sides of the temple (the short sides) had ten white columns
(decastyle),
and the south and north (the long sides) featured eighteen white columns. All of
these columns measured 1.8 metres (6 ft) in width, making the temple very
imposing.

A reconstruction of the temple interior by German Architect Josef Bühlmann
from 1913 depicts two longitudinal colonnades of
Corinthian
columns forming a central

nave flanked by two
aisles
below a
coffered

vaulted
ceiling. Resting on the columns a
double impost forms a double
entablature
extending back into the
exedra
, with a cofferred half-dome
ceiling above the seated statue. The walls behind the aisles are inset with
smaller columns standing some distance above the floor on a plinth. Small
statues set in
niches
between these columns punctuate the
walls, the niches surmounted by alternating

arched and triangular
pediments
. More small statues are positioned on
the entablature
above each small column.

As an additional clever subtlety by Hadrian, Venus also represented love (Amor
in Latin), and “AMOR” is “ROMA” spelled backwards. Thus, placing the two
divinities of Venus and Rome back-to-back in a single temple created a further
symmetry with the back-to-back symmetry of their names as well. Within Venus’
cella was another altar where newly wed couples could make sacrifices. Directly
adjacent to this altar stood gigantic silver statues of
Marcus Aurelius
and
Faustina the Younger
.

Today

 

Canopy erected at the Temple of Venus and Rome during Good Friday
ceremonies.

Since the papacy of John Paul II, the heights of the temple and its position
opposite the main entrance to the Colosseum have been used to good effect as a
public address platform. This may be seen in the photograph below where a red
canopy has been erected to shelter the Pope as well as an illuminated cross, on
the occasion of the
Good Friday
ceremony. The Pope, either
personally or through a representative, leads the faithful through meditations
on the stations of the cross while a cross is carried from there to the
Colosseum.

The Temple has now been
reopened
to the public after an extensive
restoration programme that lasted 26 years. Access to the temple is included in
tickets for the Colosseum, the Forum and the Palatine Hill.

Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius (c.

278 –

28 October

312) was

Western Roman Emperor

from 306 to

312.

He was the son of former emperor

Maximian
,

and the son-in-law of

Galerius
,

also an emperor.

Princeps
and Caesar: 306-307 A.D.
Augustus: 307-308 (with Maximian and Constantine I)
308-312 A.D. (Sole Reign)

Birth and early life

Maxentius’ exact date of birth is unknown; it was probably around 278. He was

the son of the emperor

Maximian

and his wife Eutropia.

As his father became emperor in 285, he was regarded as crown prince who

would eventually follow his father on the throne. He seems not to have served in

any important military or administrative position during

Diocletian
‘s

and his father’s reign, though. Early (the exact date is unknown) he married

Valeria Maximilla

, the daughter of

Galerius
.

He had two sons,

Valerius Romulus

(ca. 295 – 309) and an unknown one.When he was about 8

years old he burned his carpet in his room which resulted in the death of his

brother, Pompulus Arenas.

In 305, Diocletian and Maximian resigned, and the former

Constantius

and

Galerius

became

Augusti

. Although with

Constantine

and Maxentius two sons of emperors were available, they were

left out from the new

tetrarchy
,

and

Severus

and

Maximinus

Daia
were appointed Caesars. Some sources (Lactantius,

Epitome) state that Galerius hated Maxentius and used his influence on

Diocletian that Maxentius be ignored in the succession; maybe Diocletianus also

thought that he was not qualified for the military duties of the imperial

office. Maxentius retired to an estate some miles from

Rome.

When Constantius died in 306, his son Constantine was crowned emperor on

July 25

and subsequently accepted by Galerius into the

tetrarchy

as Caesar. This set the precedent for Maxentius’ accession later in the

same year.

Accession

When rumours reached the capital that the emperors tried to subject the Roman

population to the capitation tax, like every other city of the empire, and

wanted to dissolve the remains of the

Praetorian Guard

which were still stationed at Rome, riots broke out. A

group of officers of the city’s garrisons (Zosimus

calls them Marcellianus, Marcellus and Lucianus) turned to Maxentius to accept

the imperial purple, probably judging that the official recognition which was

granted to Constantine would not be withheld from Maxentius, son of an emperor

as well. Maxentius accepted the honour, promised donations to the city’s troops,

and was publicly acclaimed emperor on

October 28
,

306. The

usurpation obviously went largely without bloodshed (Zosimus names only one

victim); the prefect of Rome went over to Maxentius and retained his office.

Apparently the conspirators turned to Maximian as well, who had retired to a

palace in Lucania
,

but he declined to resume power for the time being.

Maxentius managed to be recognized as emperor in central and southern Italy,

the islands of Corsica

, Sardinia

and Sicily

, and the African

provinces. Northern Italy remained under the control of the western

Augustus

Severus

, who resided in

Milan
.

Maxentius refrained from using the titles Augustus or Caesar at first and

styled himself princeps invictus (Undefeated Prince), in the hope of

obtaining recognition of his reign by the senior emperor Galerius. However, the

latter refused to do so. Apart from his alleged antipathy towards Maxentius,

Galerius probably wanted to deter others from following the examples of

Constantine and Maxentius and declaring themselves emperors. Constantine firmly

controlled his father’s army and territories, and Galerius could pretend that

his accession was part of the regular succession in the

tetrarchy
,

but neither was the case with Maxentius: he would be the fifth emperor, and he

had only few troops at his command. Galerius reckoned that it would be not too

difficult to quell the usurpation, and early in 307, the Augustus Severus

marched on Rome with a large army.

The majority of this army consisted of soldiers who had fought under

Maxentius’ father

Maximian

for years, and as Severus reached Rome, the majority of his army went over to

Maxentius, rightful heir of their former commander, who dealt out a large amount

of money. When Maximian himself finally left his retreat and returned to Rome to

assume the imperial office once again and support his son, Severus with the rest

of his army retreated to

Ravenna
.

Shortly after he surrendered to Maximian, who promised that his life be spared.

After the defeat of Severus, Maxentius took possession of northern Italy up

to the Alps
and the

Istrian

peninsula to the east, and assumed the title of Augustus, which (in his eyes)

had become vacant with the surrender of Severus.

Emperor

The joint rule of Maxentius and Maximian in Rome was tested further when

Galerius himself marched to Italy in the summer of 307 with an even larger army.

While negotiating with the invader, Maxentius could repeat what he did to

Severus: by the promise of large sums of money, and the authority of Maximian,

many soldiers of Galerius defected to him. Galerius was forced to withdraw,

plundering Italy on his way. Some time during the invasion, Severus was put to

death by Maxentius, probably at Tres Tabernae near Rome (the exact circumstances

of his death are not certain). After the failed campaign of Galerius, Maxentius’

reign over Italy and Africa was firmly established. Beginning in 307 already, he

tried to arrange friendly contacts with Constantine, and in the summer of that

year, Maximian travelled to

Gaul
,

where Constantine married his daughter

Fausta
and was

in turn appointed Augustus by the senior emperor. However, Constantine tried to

avoid breaking with Galerius, and did not openly support Maxentius during the

invasion.

In 308, probably April, Maximian tried to depose his son in an assembly of

soldiers in Rome; surprisingly to him, the present troops remained faithful to

his son, and he had to flee to Constantine.

In the conference of

Carnuntum

in the autumn of 308, Maxentius was once again denied recognition as legitimate

emperor, and Licinius

was appointed Augustus with the task of regaining the usurper’s

domain.

Late in 308,

Domitius Alexander

was acclaimed emperor in

Carthage
,

and the African provinces seceded from Maxentian rule. This produced a dangerous

situation for Maxentius, as Africa was critical to Rome’s food supply. Under the

command of his

praetorian prefect

Rufius Volusianus, he sent a small army to Africa which

defeated and executed Alexander in 310 or 311; Maxentius used the opportunity to

seize the wealth of Alexander’s supporters, and to bring large amounts of grain

to Rome. Also in 310, he lost

Istria
to

Licinius, who could not continue the campaign, however, as Galerius fell

mortally ill and died the next year.

Maxentius’ eldest son

Valerius Romulus

died in 309, at the age of about 14, was

consecrated

and buried in a mausoleum in the

Villa of Maxentius

at the

Via Appia

. Near the villa, Maxentius also constructed the

Circus of Maxentius

.

After the death of Maximian in 309 or 310, relations with Constantine rapidly

deteriorated, and Maxentius allied with

Maximinus

to counter an alliance between Constantine and Licinius. He allegedly tried to

secure the province of

Raetia
north of

the Alps, thereby dividing the realms of Constantine and Licinius (reported by

Zosimus); the plan was not carried out, as Constantine acted first.

By the middle of 310 Galerius had become too ill to involve himself in

imperial politics.^[1]

He died soon after

April 30
,

311.^[2]

Galerius’ death destabilized what remained of the Tetrarchic system.^[3]

On hearing the news, Maximinus mobilized against Licinius, and seized Asia Minor

before meeting Licinius on the Bosphorus to arrange terms for peace.^[4]

Maxentius fortified northern Italy against potential invasions. He also

strengthened his support among the Christians of Italy by allowing them to elect

a new

Bishop of Rome

,

Eusebius

.^[5]

Maxentius was far from secure, however. His early support was dissolving into

open protest;^[6]

by 312, he was a man barely tolerated, not one actively supported.^[7]

Without the revenues of the empire, Maxentius was forced to resume taxation in

Italy to support his army and his building projects in Rome.^[8]

The election of a bishop did not aid much, either, as Diocletian’s persecution

had split the Italian church into competing factions over the issue of apostasy.

The Christians of Italy could easily see that Constantine was more sympathetic

to their plight than Maxentius.^[9]

In the summer of 311, Maxentius mobilized against Constantine while Licinius was

occupied with affairs in the East. He declared war on Constantine, vowing to

avenge his father’s “murder”.^[10]

Constantine, in an attempt to prevent Maxentius from forming a hostile alliance

with Licinius,^[11]

forged his own alliance with the man over the winter of 311–12 by offering to

him his sister Constantia in marriage. Maximin considered Constantine’s

arrangement with Licinius an affront to his authority. In response, he sent

ambassadors to Rome, offering political recognition to Maxentius in exchange for

a military support.^[12]

Two alliances, Maximin and Maxentius, Constantine and Licinius, lined up against

one another. The emperors prepared for war.^[13]

War against Constantine

Maxentius expected an attack along his eastern flank from Licinius, and

stationed an army in Verona.^[14]

Constantine had smaller forces than his opponent: with his forces withdrawn from

Africa, with the praetorian and Imperial Horse Guard, and with the troops he had

taken from Severus, Maxentius had an army equal to approximately 100,000

soldiers to use against his opponents in the north. Many of these he used to

garrison fortified towns across the region, keeping most stationed with him in

Verona. Against this, Constantine could only bring a force of between

twenty-five and forty thousand men. The bulk of his troops simply could not be

withdrawn from the Rhine frontiers without negative consequences.^[15]

It was against the recommendations of his advisers and generals, against popular

expectation, that Constantine anticipated Maxentius, and struck first.^[16]

As early as weather permitted,^[17]

late in the spring of 312,^[18]

Constantine crossed the Alps with a quarter of his total army, a force

equivalent to something less than forty thousand men.^[19]

Having crossed the

Cottian

Alps
at the

Mont Cenis

pass,^[20]

he first came to Segusium (Susa,

Italy
), a heavily

fortified town containing a military garrison, which shut its gates to him.

Constantine ordered his forces set its gates on fire, scaled its walls, and took

the town quickly. Constantine forbade the plunder of the town, and advanced into

northern Italy.^[21]

At the approach to the west of the important city of Augusta Taurinorum (Turin,

Italy), Constantine encountered a large force of heavily armed Maxentian

cavalry,^[22]

labeled clibanarii

or

cataphracti

in the ancient sources. In the ensuing

battle

Constantine spread his forces into a line, allowing Maxentius’

cavalry to ride into the middle of his forces. As his forces broadly encircled

the enemy cavalry, Constantine’s own cavalry charged at the sides of the

Maxentian cataphracts, beating them with iron-tipped clubs. Many Maxentian

cavalrymen were dismounted, while most others were variously incapacitated by

the blows. Constantine then commanded his foot soldiers to advance against the

surviving Maxentian infantry, cutting them down as they fled.^[23]

Victory, the panegyrist who speaks of the events declares, came easily.^[24]

Turin refused to give refuge to the retreating forces of Maxentius. It opened

its gates to Constantine instead. Other cities of the north Italian plain,

recognizing Constantine’s quick and clement victories, sent him embassies of

congratulation for his victory. He moved on to Milan, where he was met with open

gates and jubilant rejoicing. He resided there until the middle of the summer of

312 before moving on.^[25]

It was expected that Maxentius would try the same strategy as against Severus

and Galerius earlier; that is, remaining in the well-defended city of Rome, and

sit out a siege which would cost his enemy much more. For somewhat uncertain

reasons, he abandoned this plan, however, and offered battle to Constantine near

the

Milvian Bridge

on

October 28
,

312. Ancient

sources usually attribute this action to superstition or (if pro-Constantinian)

divine providence. Maxentius of course had consulted soothsayers before battle,

as was customary practice, and it can be assumed that they reported favourable

omens, especially

as the day of battle would be his dies imperii, the day of his accession

to the throne (which was October 28, 306). What else may have motivated him, is

open to speculation.

The armies of Maxentius and Constantine met north of the city, some distance

outside the walls, beyond the

Tiber
river on

the Via

Flaminia
. Christian tradition, especially

Lactantius

and

Eusebius of Caesarea

, claims that Constantine fought under the

labarum
in

that battle, revealed to him in a dream. Of the battle itself, not much is known

– Constantine’s forces defeated Maxentius’s troops, who retreated to the Tiber,

and in the chaos of the fleeing army trying to cross the river, Maxentius fell

into the water and drowned. His body was found the next day and paraded through

the city, and later sent to Africa, as a sign that he had surely perished.

Overview and legacy

After Constantine’s victory, Maxentius was systematically vilified and

presented as a cruel, bloodthirsty and incompetent tyrant. While he was not

counted under the persecutors of the Christians by early sources like

Lactantius
,

under the influence of the official propaganda later Christian tradition framed

Maxentius as hostile to Christianity as well. This image has left its traces in

all of our sources and has dominated the view of Maxentius well into the 20th

century, when a more extensive use and analysis of non-literary sources like

coins and inscriptions have led to a more balanced image. Maxentius was a

prolific builder, whose achievements were overshadowed by Constantine’s issue of

a damnatio memoriae against him. Many buildings in Rome that are commonly

associated with Constantine, such as the great basilica in the

forum Romanum

, were in fact built by Maxentius^[26].

Discovery of Imperial insignia

In December 2006, Italian archeologists announced that an excavation under a

shrine near the

Palatine Hill

had unearthed several items in wooden boxes, which they

identified as the imperial

regalia
,

possibly belonging to Maxentius. The items in these boxes, which were wrapped in

linen and what appears to be silk, include 3 complete lances, 4 javelins, what

appears to be a base for standards, and three glass and

chalcedony

spheres. The most important find was a scepter of a flower holding a blue-green

globe, which is believed to have belonged to the Emperor himself because of its

intricate worksmanship, and has been dated to his rule^[27]

These are the only known imperial insignia so far recovered, which hitherto

had only been known from coins and wall paintings. Clementina Panella, the

archaeologist who made the discovery states that “These artifacts clearly

belonged to the emperor, especially the scepter, which is very elaborated, it’s

not an item you would let someone else have.” Panella notes that the insignia

were likely hidden by Maxentius’ supporters in an attempt to preserve the

emperor’s memory after he was defeated at the

Battle of Milvian Bridge

by Constantine.^[28]

The items have been restored and are on temporary display at the

Museo Nazionale Romano

at the Palazzo Massimo alle Terme.

The Principate

 Julio-Claudian
dynasty

 Year
of the Four Emperors (Civil War)

 Flavian
dynasty

 Nervan-Antonian
dynasty

Main article:
Five Good Emperors

 Year
of the Five Emperors &
Severan dynasty

 Rulers during the
Crisis of the Third Century

 Gallic
Empire
260
to 274

 Britannic
Empire
286
to 297

 Dominate

 Tetrarchy
and
Constantinian dynasty

 Valentinian
dynasty

 Theodosian
dynasty

 Western
Roman Empire

Further information:
Barbarian kings of Italy

 Eastern
Roman Empire

• For
  the rulers of the Eastern Roman Empire (also known as the
  Byzantine Empire
  ) after
  Theodosius II
  , see:
  List of Byzantine Emperors
  

Theodosian dynasty (395–457)

Name		Reign	Comments
	Theodosius I “the Great” (Θεοδόσιος Α’ ο Μέγας, Flavius Theodosius)Theodosius I Coins.htm	19 January 379 – 17 January 395	Born on 11 January 347. Aristocrat and military leader, brother-in-law of Gratian, who appointed him as emperor of the East. From 392 until his death sole Roman emperor
	Arcadius (Αρκάδιος, Flavius Arcadius)Arcadius Coins.htm	17 January 395 – 1 May 408	Born in 377/378, the eldest son of Theodosius I. Succeeded upon the death of his father
	Theodosius II (Θεοδόσιος Β’, Flavius Theodosius) Theodosius II Coins.htm	1 May 408 – 28 July 450	Born on 10 April 401, the only son of Arcadius. Succeeded upon the death of his father. As a minor, the praetorian prefect Anthemius was regent in 408–414. He died in a riding accident
	Marcian (Μαρκιανός, Flavius Valerius Marcianus) Marcian Coins.htm	450 – January 457	Born in 396. A soldier and politician, he became emperor after being wed by the Augusta Pulcheria , Theodosius II’s sister, following the latter’s death. Died of gangrene

Leonid
dynasty (457–518)

Name		Reign	Comments
	Leo I “the Thracian” (Λέων Α’ ο Θράξ, Flavius Valerius Leo) Leo I Coins.htm	7 February 457 – 18 January 474	Born in Dacia in 401. A common soldier, he was chosen by Aspar , commander-in-chief of the army. Died of dysentery
	Leo II (Λέων Β’, Flavius Leo) Leo II Coins.htm	18 January – 17 November 474	Born in 467, the grandson of Leo I. Succeeded upon the death of Leo I. Died of an unknown disease, possibly poisoned
	Zeno (Ζήνων, Flavius Zeno) Zeno Coins.htm	17 November 474 – 9 April 491	Born c.425 at Zenonopolis , Isauria , originally named Tarasicodissa. Son-in-law of Leo I, he was bypassed in the succession because of his barbarian origin. Named co-emperor by his son on 9 February 474, he succeeded upon the death of Leo II. Deposed by Basiliscus, brother-in-law of Leo, he fled to his native country and regained the throne in August 476.
	Basiliscus (Βασιλίσκος, Flavius Basiliscus) Basiliscus Coins.htm	9 January 475 – August 476	General and brother-in-law of Leo I, he seized power from Zeno but was again deposed by him. Died in 476/477
	Anastasius I (Αναστάσιος Α’, Flavius Anastasius) BYZANTINE – Anastasius Coins.htm	11 April 491 – 9 July 518	Born c. 430 at Dyrrhachium , Epirus nova . A palace official (silentiarius) and son-in-law of Leo I, he was chosen as emperor by empress-dowager Ariadne

Justinian Dynasty

Portrait	Name	Born	Reigned	Succession	Died
	Justin I FLAVIVS IVSTINVS AVGVSTVS	c. 450 AD, Naissus	July 9, 518 AD – August 1, 527 AD	Commander of the palace guard under Anastasius I) ; elected as emperor with support of army	August 1, 527 AD Natural causes
	Justinian I FLAVIVS PETRVS SABBATIVS IVSTINIANVS AVGVSTVS	c. 482 AD, Tauresium , Dardania	August 1, 527 AD – 13/14 November 565 AD	Nephew and nominated heir of Justin I	13/14 November 565 AD Natural causes
	Justin II FLAVIVS IVSTINIVS IVNIOR AVGVSTVS	c. 520 AD, ?	13/14 November 565 AD – 578 AD	Nephew of Justinian I	578 AD Became insane; Tiberius II Constantine ruled as regent from December 574 and became emperor on Justin’s death in 578

Roman Late Monogram Coins.htm

Roman AE4 Coins.htm