Maxentius Constantine the Great Enemy Ancient Roman Coin Fides Trust Rare i52978

Standards

Roman military standards. The standards with discs, or signa
(first three on left) belong to centuriae of the
legion (the image does not show the heads of the standards – whether
spear-head or wreathed-palm). Note (second from right) the
legion’s
aquila
. The standard on the
extreme right probably portrays the
She-wolf
(lupa) which fed
Romulus
, the legendary founder of
Rome. (This was the emblem of
Legio VI Ferrata
, a legion then
based in
Judaea
, a detachment of which is
known to have fought in Dacia). Detail from Trajan’s Column, Rome

Modern reenactors parade with replicas of various legionary
standards. From left to right: signum (spear-head type), with
four discs; signum (wreathed-palm type), with six discs;
imago of ruling emperor; legionary aquila; vexillum
of commander (legatus) of
Legio XXX Ulpia Victrix
, with
embroidered name and emblem (Capricorn) of legion

Each tactical unit in the imperial army, from centuria upwards, had
its own standard. This consisted of a pole with a variety of adornments that was
borne by dedicated standard-bearers who normally held the rank of duplicarius.
Military standards had the practical use of communicating to unit members where
the main body of the unit was situated, so that they would not be separated, in
the same way that modern tour-group guides use umbrellas or flags. But military
standards were also invested with a mystical quality, representing the divine
spirit (genius) of the unit and were revered as such (soldiers frequently
prayed before their standards). The loss of a unit’s standard to the enemy was
considered a terrible stain on the unit’s honour, which could only be fully
expunged by its recovery.

The standard of a centuria was known as a signum, which was
borne by the unit’s signifer. It consisted of a pole topped by either an
open palm of a human hand or by a spear-head. The open palm, it has been
suggested, originated as a symbol of the
maniple
(manipulus = “handful”), the
smallest tactical unit in the
Roman army of the mid-Republic
. The poles were
adorned with two to six silver discs (the significance of which is uncertain).
In addition, the pole would be adorned by a variety of cross-pieces (including,
at bottom, a crescent-moon symbol and a tassel). The standard would also
normally sport a cross-bar with tassels.

The standard of a Praetorian cohort or an auxiliary cohort or ala was
known as a vexillum
or banner. This was a square flag,
normally red in colour, hanging from a crossbar on the top of the pole. Stitched
on the flag would be the name of the unit and/or an image of a god. An exemplar
found in Egypt bears an image of the goddess Victory on a red background. The
vexillum was borne by a vexillarius. A legionary detachment (vexillatio)
would also have its own vexillum. Finally, a vexillum
traditionally marked the commander’s position on the battlefield.^[194]
The exception to the red colour appears to have been the Praetorian Guard, whose
vexilla, similar to their clothing, favoured a blue background.

From the time of
Marius
(consul 107 BC), the standard of all
legions was the
aquila
(“eagle”). The pole was surmounted
by a sculpted eagle of solid gold, or at least gold-plated silver, carrying
thunderbolts in its claws (representing
Jupiter
, the highest Roman god. Otherwise the
pole was unadorned. No exemplar of a legionary eagle has ever been found
(doubtless because any found in later centuries were melted down for their gold
content). The eagle was borne by the aquilifer, the legion’s most senior
standard-bearer. So important were legionary eagles as symbols of Roman military
prestige and power, that the imperial government would go to extraordinary
lengths to recover those captured by the enemy. This would include launching
full-scale invasions of the enemy’s territory, sometimes decades after the
eagles had been lost e.g. the expedition in 28 BC by
Marcus Licinius Crassus
against
Genucla
(Isaccea, near modern
Tulcea
, Rom., in the Danube delta region), a
fortress of the Getae
, to recover standards lost 33 years
earlier by
Gaius Antonius
, an earlier
proconsul
of
Macedonia
. Or the campaigns of AD 14-17 to
recover the three eagles lost by
Varus
in AD 6 in the
Teutoburg Forest
.

Under Augustus, it became the practice for legions to carry portraits (imagines)
of the ruling emperor and his immediate family members. An imago was
usually a bronze bust carried on top of a pole like a standard by an
imaginifer.

From around the time of Hadrian (r. 117-38), some auxiliary alae
adopted the dragon-standard (draco) commonly carried by Sarmatian cavalry
squadrons. This was a long cloth wind-sock attached to an ornate sculpture of an
open dragon’s mouth. When the bearer (draconarius) was galloping, it
would make a strong hissing-sound.

Decorations

The Roman army awarded a variety of individual decorations (dona) for
valour to its legionaries. Hasta pura was a miniature spear; phalerae
were large medal-like bronze or silver discs worn on the cuirass; armillae
were bracelets worn on the wrist; and

torques were worn round the neck, or on the cuirass. The highest
awards were the coronae (“crowns”), of which the most prestigious was the
corona civica, a crown made oak-leaves awarded for saving the life of a
fellow Roman citizen in battle. The most valuable award was the corona
muralis, a crown made of gold awarded to the first man to scale an enemy
rampart. This was awarded rarely, as such a man hardly ever survived.

There is no evidence that auxiliary common soldiers received individual
decorations like legionaries, although auxiliary officers did. Instead, the
whole regiment was honoured by a title reflecting the type of award e.g.
torquata (“awarded a torque”) or armillata (“awarded bracelets”).
Some regiments would, in the course of time, accumulate a long list of titles
and decorations e.g. cohors I Brittonum Ulpia torquata pia fidelis c.R..

In
Roman religion
, Fides was the goddess of
trust
.

Her temple on the
Capitol
was where the
Roman Senate
signed and kept state treaties
with foreign countries, and where Fides protected them.

She was also worshipped under the name Fides Publica Populi Romani
(“Public (or Common) Trust of the Roman People”). She is represented by a young
woman crowned with an olive branch, with a cup or
turtle
, or a military ensign in hand. She wears
a white veil or stola; her priests wore white cloths, showing her connection to
the highest gods of Heaven,
Jupiter
and
Dius Fidius
. Her temple which can be dated to
254 B.C.E was near Jupiter’s temple in the Capitol.

Traditionally Rome’s second king,
Numa Pompilius
instituted a yearly festival
devoted to Fides, and established that the major priests (the three
flamines maiores
) be borne to her temple in a
covered arched chariot drawn by two horses. There they should conduct her
services with their heads covered and right hands wrapped up to the fingers to
indicate absolute devotion to her and to symbolise trust.^[1]

Her Greek
equivalent was
Pistis
.

Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius (c.

278 –

28 October

312) was

Western Roman Emperor

from 306 to

312.

He was the son of former emperor

Maximian
,

and the son-in-law of

Galerius
,

also an emperor.

Princeps
and Caesar: 306-307 A.D.
Augustus: 307-308 (with Maximian and Constantine I)
308-312 A.D. (Sole Reign)

Birth and early life

Maxentius’ exact date of birth is unknown; it was probably around 278. He was

the son of the emperor

Maximian

and his wife Eutropia.

As his father became emperor in 285, he was regarded as crown prince who

would eventually follow his father on the throne. He seems not to have served in

any important military or administrative position during

Diocletian
‘s

and his father’s reign, though. Early (the exact date is unknown) he married

Valeria Maximilla

, the daughter of

Galerius
.

He had two sons,

Valerius Romulus

(ca. 295 – 309) and an unknown one.When he was about 8

years old he burned his carpet in his room which resulted in the death of his

brother, Pompulus Arenas.

In 305, Diocletian and Maximian resigned, and the former

Constantius

and

Galerius

became

Augusti

. Although with

Constantine

and Maxentius two sons of emperors were available, they were

left out from the new

tetrarchy
,

and

Severus

and

Maximinus

Daia
were appointed Caesars. Some sources (Lactantius,

Epitome) state that Galerius hated Maxentius and used his influence on

Diocletian that Maxentius be ignored in the succession; maybe Diocletianus also

thought that he was not qualified for the military duties of the imperial

office. Maxentius retired to an estate some miles from

Rome.

When Constantius died in 306, his son Constantine was crowned emperor on

July 25

and subsequently accepted by Galerius into the

tetrarchy

as Caesar. This set the precedent for Maxentius’ accession later in the

same year.

Accession

When rumours reached the capital that the emperors tried to subject the Roman

population to the capitation tax, like every other city of the empire, and

wanted to dissolve the remains of the

Praetorian Guard

which were still stationed at Rome, riots broke out. A

group of officers of the city’s garrisons (Zosimus

calls them Marcellianus, Marcellus and Lucianus) turned to Maxentius to accept

the imperial purple, probably judging that the official recognition which was

granted to Constantine would not be withheld from Maxentius, son of an emperor

as well. Maxentius accepted the honour, promised donations to the city’s troops,

and was publicly acclaimed emperor on

October 28
,

306. The

usurpation obviously went largely without bloodshed (Zosimus names only one

victim); the prefect of Rome went over to Maxentius and retained his office.

Apparently the conspirators turned to Maximian as well, who had retired to a

palace in Lucania
,

but he declined to resume power for the time being.

Maxentius managed to be recognized as emperor in central and southern Italy,

the islands of Corsica

, Sardinia

and Sicily

, and the African

provinces. Northern Italy remained under the control of the western

Augustus

Severus

, who resided in

Milan
.

Maxentius refrained from using the titles Augustus or Caesar at first and

styled himself princeps invictus (Undefeated Prince), in the hope of

obtaining recognition of his reign by the senior emperor Galerius. However, the

latter refused to do so. Apart from his alleged antipathy towards Maxentius,

Galerius probably wanted to deter others from following the examples of

Constantine and Maxentius and declaring themselves emperors. Constantine firmly

controlled his father’s army and territories, and Galerius could pretend that

his accession was part of the regular succession in the

tetrarchy
,

but neither was the case with Maxentius: he would be the fifth emperor, and he

had only few troops at his command. Galerius reckoned that it would be not too

difficult to quell the usurpation, and early in 307, the Augustus Severus

marched on Rome with a large army.

The majority of this army consisted of soldiers who had fought under

Maxentius’ father

Maximian

for years, and as Severus reached Rome, the majority of his army went over to

Maxentius, rightful heir of their former commander, who dealt out a large amount

of money. When Maximian himself finally left his retreat and returned to Rome to

assume the imperial office once again and support his son, Severus with the rest

of his army retreated to

Ravenna
.

Shortly after he surrendered to Maximian, who promised that his life be spared.

After the defeat of Severus, Maxentius took possession of northern Italy up

to the Alps
and the

Istrian

peninsula to the east, and assumed the title of Augustus, which (in his eyes)

had become vacant with the surrender of Severus.

Emperor

The joint rule of Maxentius and Maximian in Rome was tested further when

Galerius himself marched to Italy in the summer of 307 with an even larger army.

While negotiating with the invader, Maxentius could repeat what he did to

Severus: by the promise of large sums of money, and the authority of Maximian,

many soldiers of Galerius defected to him. Galerius was forced to withdraw,

plundering Italy on his way. Some time during the invasion, Severus was put to

death by Maxentius, probably at Tres Tabernae near Rome (the exact circumstances

of his death are not certain). After the failed campaign of Galerius, Maxentius’

reign over Italy and Africa was firmly established. Beginning in 307 already, he

tried to arrange friendly contacts with Constantine, and in the summer of that

year, Maximian travelled to

Gaul
,

where Constantine married his daughter

Fausta
and was

in turn appointed Augustus by the senior emperor. However, Constantine tried to

avoid breaking with Galerius, and did not openly support Maxentius during the

invasion.

In 308, probably April, Maximian tried to depose his son in an assembly of

soldiers in Rome; surprisingly to him, the present troops remained faithful to

his son, and he had to flee to Constantine.

In the conference of

Carnuntum

in the autumn of 308, Maxentius was once again denied recognition as legitimate

emperor, and Licinius

was appointed Augustus with the task of regaining the usurper’s

domain.

Late in 308,

Domitius Alexander

was acclaimed emperor in

Carthage
,

and the African provinces seceded from Maxentian rule. This produced a dangerous

situation for Maxentius, as Africa was critical to Rome’s food supply. Under the

command of his

praetorian prefect

Rufius Volusianus, he sent a small army to Africa which

defeated and executed Alexander in 310 or 311; Maxentius used the opportunity to

seize the wealth of Alexander’s supporters, and to bring large amounts of grain

to Rome. Also in 310, he lost

Istria
to

Licinius, who could not continue the campaign, however, as Galerius fell

mortally ill and died the next year.

Maxentius’ eldest son

Valerius Romulus

died in 309, at the age of about 14, was

consecrated

and buried in a mausoleum in the

Villa of Maxentius

at the

Via Appia

. Near the villa, Maxentius also constructed the

Circus of Maxentius

.

After the death of Maximian in 309 or 310, relations with Constantine rapidly

deteriorated, and Maxentius allied with

Maximinus

to counter an alliance between Constantine and Licinius. He allegedly tried to

secure the province of

Raetia
north of

the Alps, thereby dividing the realms of Constantine and Licinius (reported by

Zosimus); the plan was not carried out, as Constantine acted first.

By the middle of 310 Galerius had become too ill to involve himself in

imperial politics.^[1]

He died soon after

April 30
,

311.^[2]

Galerius’ death destabilized what remained of the Tetrarchic system.^[3]

On hearing the news, Maximinus mobilized against Licinius, and seized Asia Minor

before meeting Licinius on the Bosphorus to arrange terms for peace.^[4]

Maxentius fortified northern Italy against potential invasions. He also

strengthened his support among the Christians of Italy by allowing them to elect

a new

Bishop of Rome

,

Eusebius

.^[5]

Maxentius was far from secure, however. His early support was dissolving into

open protest;^[6]

by 312, he was a man barely tolerated, not one actively supported.^[7]

Without the revenues of the empire, Maxentius was forced to resume taxation in

Italy to support his army and his building projects in Rome.^[8]

The election of a bishop did not aid much, either, as Diocletian’s persecution

had split the Italian church into competing factions over the issue of apostasy.

The Christians of Italy could easily see that Constantine was more sympathetic

to their plight than Maxentius.^[9]

In the summer of 311, Maxentius mobilized against Constantine while Licinius was

occupied with affairs in the East. He declared war on Constantine, vowing to

avenge his father’s “murder”.^[10]

Constantine, in an attempt to prevent Maxentius from forming a hostile alliance

with Licinius,^[11]

forged his own alliance with the man over the winter of 311–12 by offering to

him his sister Constantia in marriage. Maximin considered Constantine’s

arrangement with Licinius an affront to his authority. In response, he sent

ambassadors to Rome, offering political recognition to Maxentius in exchange for

a military support.^[12]

Two alliances, Maximin and Maxentius, Constantine and Licinius, lined up against

one another. The emperors prepared for war.^[13]

War against Constantine

Maxentius expected an attack along his eastern flank from Licinius, and

stationed an army in Verona.^[14]

Constantine had smaller forces than his opponent: with his forces withdrawn from

Africa, with the praetorian and Imperial Horse Guard, and with the troops he had

taken from Severus, Maxentius had an army equal to approximately 100,000

soldiers to use against his opponents in the north. Many of these he used to

garrison fortified towns across the region, keeping most stationed with him in

Verona. Against this, Constantine could only bring a force of between

twenty-five and forty thousand men. The bulk of his troops simply could not be

withdrawn from the Rhine frontiers without negative consequences.^[15]

It was against the recommendations of his advisers and generals, against popular

expectation, that Constantine anticipated Maxentius, and struck first.^[16]

As early as weather permitted,^[17]

late in the spring of 312,^[18]

Constantine crossed the Alps with a quarter of his total army, a force

equivalent to something less than forty thousand men.^[19]

Having crossed the

Cottian

Alps
at the

Mont Cenis

pass,^[20]

he first came to Segusium (Susa,

Italy
), a heavily

fortified town containing a military garrison, which shut its gates to him.

Constantine ordered his forces set its gates on fire, scaled its walls, and took

the town quickly. Constantine forbade the plunder of the town, and advanced into

northern Italy.^[21]

At the approach to the west of the important city of Augusta Taurinorum (Turin,

Italy), Constantine encountered a large force of heavily armed Maxentian

cavalry,^[22]

labeled clibanarii

or

cataphracti

in the ancient sources. In the ensuing

battle

Constantine spread his forces into a line, allowing Maxentius’

cavalry to ride into the middle of his forces. As his forces broadly encircled

the enemy cavalry, Constantine’s own cavalry charged at the sides of the

Maxentian cataphracts, beating them with iron-tipped clubs. Many Maxentian

cavalrymen were dismounted, while most others were variously incapacitated by

the blows. Constantine then commanded his foot soldiers to advance against the

surviving Maxentian infantry, cutting them down as they fled.^[23]

Victory, the panegyrist who speaks of the events declares, came easily.^[24]

Turin refused to give refuge to the retreating forces of Maxentius. It opened

its gates to Constantine instead. Other cities of the north Italian plain,

recognizing Constantine’s quick and clement victories, sent him embassies of

congratulation for his victory. He moved on to Milan, where he was met with open

gates and jubilant rejoicing. He resided there until the middle of the summer of

312 before moving on.^[25]

It was expected that Maxentius would try the same strategy as against Severus

and Galerius earlier; that is, remaining in the well-defended city of Rome, and

sit out a siege which would cost his enemy much more. For somewhat uncertain

reasons, he abandoned this plan, however, and offered battle to Constantine near

the

Milvian Bridge

on

October 28
,

312. Ancient

sources usually attribute this action to superstition or (if pro-Constantinian)

divine providence. Maxentius of course had consulted soothsayers before battle,

as was customary practice, and it can be assumed that they reported favourable

omens, especially

as the day of battle would be his dies imperii, the day of his accession

to the throne (which was October 28, 306). What else may have motivated him, is

open to speculation.

The armies of Maxentius and Constantine met north of the city, some distance

outside the walls, beyond the

Tiber
river on

the Via

Flaminia
. Christian tradition, especially

Lactantius

and

Eusebius of Caesarea

, claims that Constantine fought under the

labarum
in

that battle, revealed to him in a dream. Of the battle itself, not much is known

– Constantine’s forces defeated Maxentius’s troops, who retreated to the Tiber,

and in the chaos of the fleeing army trying to cross the river, Maxentius fell

into the water and drowned. His body was found the next day and paraded through

the city, and later sent to Africa, as a sign that he had surely perished.

Overview and legacy

After Constantine’s victory, Maxentius was systematically vilified and

presented as a cruel, bloodthirsty and incompetent tyrant. While he was not

counted under the persecutors of the Christians by early sources like

Lactantius
,

under the influence of the official propaganda later Christian tradition framed

Maxentius as hostile to Christianity as well. This image has left its traces in

all of our sources and has dominated the view of Maxentius well into the 20th

century, when a more extensive use and analysis of non-literary sources like

coins and inscriptions have led to a more balanced image. Maxentius was a

prolific builder, whose achievements were overshadowed by Constantine’s issue of

a damnatio memoriae against him. Many buildings in Rome that are commonly

associated with Constantine, such as the great basilica in the

forum Romanum

, were in fact built by Maxentius^[26].

Discovery of Imperial insignia

In December 2006, Italian archeologists announced that an excavation under a

shrine near the

Palatine Hill

had unearthed several items in wooden boxes, which they

identified as the imperial

regalia
,

possibly belonging to Maxentius. The items in these boxes, which were wrapped in

linen and what appears to be silk, include 3 complete lances, 4 javelins, what

appears to be a base for standards, and three glass and

chalcedony

spheres. The most important find was a scepter of a flower holding a blue-green

globe, which is believed to have belonged to the Emperor himself because of its

intricate worksmanship, and has been dated to his rule^[27]

These are the only known imperial insignia so far recovered, which hitherto

had only been known from coins and wall paintings. Clementina Panella, the

archaeologist who made the discovery states that “These artifacts clearly

belonged to the emperor, especially the scepter, which is very elaborated, it’s

not an item you would let someone else have.” Panella notes that the insignia

were likely hidden by Maxentius’ supporters in an attempt to preserve the

emperor’s memory after he was defeated at the

Battle of Milvian Bridge

by Constantine.^[28]

The items have been restored and are on temporary display at the

Museo Nazionale Romano

at the Palazzo Massimo alle Terme.

The Principate

 Julio-Claudian
dynasty

 Year
of the Four Emperors (Civil War)

 Flavian
dynasty

 Nervan-Antonian
dynasty

Main article:
Five Good Emperors

 Year
of the Five Emperors &
Severan dynasty

 Rulers during the
Crisis of the Third Century

 Gallic
Empire
260
to 274

 Britannic
Empire
286
to 297

 Dominate

 Tetrarchy
and
Constantinian dynasty

 Valentinian
dynasty

 Theodosian
dynasty

 Western
Roman Empire

Further information:
Barbarian kings of Italy

 Eastern
Roman Empire

• For
  the rulers of the Eastern Roman Empire (also known as the
  Byzantine Empire
  ) after
  Theodosius II
  , see:
  List of Byzantine Emperors
  

Theodosian dynasty (395–457)

Name		Reign	Comments
	Theodosius I “the Great” (Θεοδόσιος Α’ ο Μέγας, Flavius Theodosius)Theodosius I Coins.htm	19 January 379 – 17 January 395	Born on 11 January 347. Aristocrat and military leader, brother-in-law of Gratian, who appointed him as emperor of the East. From 392 until his death sole Roman emperor
	Arcadius (Αρκάδιος, Flavius Arcadius)Arcadius Coins.htm	17 January 395 – 1 May 408	Born in 377/378, the eldest son of Theodosius I. Succeeded upon the death of his father
	Theodosius II (Θεοδόσιος Β’, Flavius Theodosius) Theodosius II Coins.htm	1 May 408 – 28 July 450	Born on 10 April 401, the only son of Arcadius. Succeeded upon the death of his father. As a minor, the praetorian prefect Anthemius was regent in 408–414. He died in a riding accident
	Marcian (Μαρκιανός, Flavius Valerius Marcianus) Marcian Coins.htm	450 – January 457	Born in 396. A soldier and politician, he became emperor after being wed by the Augusta Pulcheria , Theodosius II’s sister, following the latter’s death. Died of gangrene

Leonid
dynasty (457–518)

Name		Reign	Comments
	Leo I “the Thracian” (Λέων Α’ ο Θράξ, Flavius Valerius Leo) Leo I Coins.htm	7 February 457 – 18 January 474	Born in Dacia in 401. A common soldier, he was chosen by Aspar , commander-in-chief of the army. Died of dysentery
	Leo II (Λέων Β’, Flavius Leo) Leo II Coins.htm	18 January – 17 November 474	Born in 467, the grandson of Leo I. Succeeded upon the death of Leo I. Died of an unknown disease, possibly poisoned
	Zeno (Ζήνων, Flavius Zeno) Zeno Coins.htm	17 November 474 – 9 April 491	Born c.425 at Zenonopolis , Isauria , originally named Tarasicodissa. Son-in-law of Leo I, he was bypassed in the succession because of his barbarian origin. Named co-emperor by his son on 9 February 474, he succeeded upon the death of Leo II. Deposed by Basiliscus, brother-in-law of Leo, he fled to his native country and regained the throne in August 476.
	Basiliscus (Βασιλίσκος, Flavius Basiliscus) Basiliscus Coins.htm	9 January 475 – August 476	General and brother-in-law of Leo I, he seized power from Zeno but was again deposed by him. Died in 476/477
	Anastasius I (Αναστάσιος Α’, Flavius Anastasius) BYZANTINE – Anastasius Coins.htm	11 April 491 – 9 July 518	Born c. 430 at Dyrrhachium , Epirus nova . A palace official (silentiarius) and son-in-law of Leo I, he was chosen as emperor by empress-dowager Ariadne

Justinian Dynasty

Portrait	Name	Born	Reigned	Succession	Died
	Justin I FLAVIVS IVSTINVS AVGVSTVS	c. 450 AD, Naissus	July 9, 518 AD – August 1, 527 AD	Commander of the palace guard under Anastasius I) ; elected as emperor with support of army	August 1, 527 AD Natural causes
	Justinian I FLAVIVS PETRVS SABBATIVS IVSTINIANVS AVGVSTVS	c. 482 AD, Tauresium , Dardania	August 1, 527 AD – 13/14 November 565 AD	Nephew and nominated heir of Justin I	13/14 November 565 AD Natural causes
	Justin II FLAVIVS IVSTINIVS IVNIOR AVGVSTVS	c. 520 AD, ?	13/14 November 565 AD – 578 AD	Nephew of Justinian I	578 AD Became insane; Tiberius II Constantine ruled as regent from December 574 and became emperor on Justin’s death in 578

Roman Late Monogram Coins.htm

Roman AE4 Coins.htm