|
Nero –
Roman Emperor: 54-68 A.D. –
Bronze 15mm (2.63 grams) of
Sardes in
Lydia
Tiberius Claudius Mnaseas, magistrate.
Reference: RPC 3009
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Hercules
is the Roman name for the Greek
divine
hero Heracles
, who was the son of
Zeus (Roman equivalent
Jupiter
) and the mortal
Alcmene
. In
classical mythology
, Hercules is famous for his
strength and for his numerous far-ranging adventures.
The Romans adapted the Greek hero’s iconography and myths for their
literature and art under the name Hercules. In later
Western art
and literature and in
popular culture
, Hercules is more
commonly used than Heracles as the name of the hero. Hercules was a
multifaceted figure with contradictory characteristics, which enabled later
artists and writers to pick and choose how to represent him. This article
provides an introduction to representations of Hercules in the
later tradition
.
Sardis
or Sardes was an ancient city at the location of modern Sart (Sartmahmut
before 19 October 2005) in
Turkey
‘s
Manisa Province
. Sardis was the capital of the
ancient kingdom of Lydia
, one of the important cities of the
Persian Empire
, the seat of a
proconsul
under the
Roman Empire
, and the metropolis of the
province Lydia in later Roman and
Byzantine
times. As one of the
Seven churches of Asia
, it was addressed by the
author John of the
Book of Revelation
in the Holy Bible in terms
which seem to imply that its population was notoriously soft and fainthearted.
Its importance was due, first to its military strength, secondly to its
situation on an important highway leading from the interior to the
Aegean
coast, and thirdly to its commanding the
wide and fertile plain of the
Hermus
.
Geography
Sardis was situated in the middle of
Hermus
valley, at the foot of
Mount Tmolus
, a steep and lofty spur which
formed the citadel. It was about 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) south of the Hermus.
Today, the site is located by the present day village of Sart, near
Salihli
in the Manisa province of Turkey, close
to the Ankara
–
Ä°zmir
highway (approximately 72 kilometres
(45 mi) from Ä°zmir
). The part of remains including the
bath-gymnasium complex, synagogue and Byzantine shops is open to visitors
year-round.
History
The earliest reference to Sardis is in the
The Persians
of
Aeschylus
(472 BC); in the
Iliad
, the name Hyde seems to be given to
the city of the
Maeonian
(i.e.
Lydian
) chiefs, and in later times Hyde was
said to be the older name of Sardis, or the name of its
citadel
. It is, however, more probable that
Sardis was not the original capital of the Maeonians, but that it became so amid
the changes which produced the powerful
Lydian empire
of the 8th century BC.
The city was captured by the
Cimmerians
in the 7th century BC, by the
Persians
in the 6th, by the
Athenians
in the 5th, and by
Antiochus III the Great
at the end of the 3rd
century BC. In the Persian era, Sardis was conquered by
Cyrus the Great
and formed the end station for
the Persian Royal Road
which began in
Persepolis
, capital of
Persia
. During the
Ionian Revolt
, the
Athenians
burnt down the city. Sardis remained
under Persian domination until it surrendered to
Alexander the Great
in 334 BC.
The early Lydian kingdom was very advanced in the industrial arts and Sardis
was the chief seat of its manufactures. The most important of these trades was
the manufacture and dyeing of delicate woolen stuffs and carpets. The stream
Pactolus
which flowed through the market-place
“carried golden sands” in early antiquity, which was in reality gold dust out of
Mount Tmolus
. It was during the reign of King
Croesus
that the
metallurgists
of Sardis discovered the secret
of separating gold
from
silver
, thereby producing both metals of a
purity never known before. This was an economic revolution, for while gold
nuggets panned or mined were used as currency, their purity was always suspect
and a hindrance to trade. Such nuggets or coinage were naturally occurring
alloys of gold and silver known as
electrum
and one could never know how much of
it was gold and how much was silver. Sardis now could mint nearly pure silver
and gold coins, the value of which could be—and was—trusted throughout the known
world. This revolution made Sardis rich and
Croesus
‘ name synonymous with wealth itself.
For this reason, Sardis is famed in history as the place where modern
currency
was invented.
Disaster came to the great city under the reign of the emperor
Tiberius
, when in
AD 17, Sardis was destroyed by an earthquake
,
but it was rebuilt. It was one of the great cities of western
Asia Minor
until the later
Byzantine
period.
Later, trade and the organization of commerce continued to be sources of
great wealth. After
Constantinople
became the capital of the East,
a new road system grew up connecting the provinces with the capital. Sardis then
lay rather apart from the great lines of communication and lost some of its
importance. It still, however, retained its titular supremacy and continued to
be the seat of the
metropolitan bishop
of the province of Lydia,
formed in AD 295. It was enumerated as third, after
Ephesus
and
Smyrna
, in the list of cities of the Thracesion
thema
given by
Constantine Porphyrogenitus
in the 10th
century. However, over the next four centuries it was in the shadow of the
provinces of Magnesia-upon-Sipylum and Philadelphia, which retained their
importance in the region.
After 1071 the Hermus valley began to suffer from the inroads of the
Seljuk Turks
but the Byzantine general
John Doukas
reconquered the city in 1097, the
successes of the general Philokales in 1118 relieved the district from later
Turkish pressure and the ability of the
Comneni
dynasty together with the gradual decay
of the
Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
meant that it remained
under Byzantine dominion. When
Constantinople
was taken by the
Venetians
and
Franks
in 1204 Sardis came under the rule of
the Byzantine
Empire of Nicea
. However once the Byzantines
retook Constantinople in 1261, Sardis with the entire
Asia Minor
was neglected and the region
eventually fell under the control of Ghazi (Ghazw)
emirs, the
Cayster
valleys and a fort on the citadel of
Sardis was handed over to them by treaty in 1306. The city continued its decline
until its capture (and probable destruction) by the
Mongol
warlord
Timur
in 1402.
Nero (Latin:
Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus;15 December 37 – 9 June 68) was
Roman Emperor
from 54 to 68, and the last in
the
Julio-Claudian dynasty
. Nero was
adopted by
his great uncle
Claudius
to become his heir and successor, and
succeeded to the throne in 54 following Claudius’ death.
During his reign, Nero focused much of his attention on diplomacy, trade, and
enhancing the cultural life of the Empire. He ordered theaters built and
promoted athletic games. During his reign, the redoubtable general
Corbulo
conducted a
successful war
and negotiated peace with the
Parthian Empire
. His general
Suetonius Paulinus
crushed a
revolt in Britain
. Nero annexed the
Bosporan Kingdom
to the Empire and began the
First Roman–Jewish War
.
In 64, most of Rome was destroyed in the
Great Fire of Rome
, which many Romans believed
Nero himself had started in order to clear land for his planned palatial
complex, the
Domus Aurea
. In 68, the rebellion of
Vindex
in
Gaul and later the acclamation of
Galba
in
Hispania
drove Nero from the throne. Facing
assassination, he committed suicide on 9 June 68 (the first Roman emperor to do
so) His death ended the
Julio-Claudian Dynasty
, sparking a brief period
of civil wars known as the
Year of the Four Emperors
. Nero’s rule is often
associated with tyranny and extravagance. He is known for many executions,
including that of his mother, and the probable murder by poison of his
stepbrother
Britannicus
.
He is infamously known as the Emperor who “fiddled while Rome burned” and as
an early persecutor of
Christians
. He was known for having captured
Christians to burn them in his garden at night for a source of light. This view
is based on the writings of
Tacitus
,
Suetonius
, and
Cassius Dio
, the main surviving sources for
Nero’s reign. Few surviving sources paint Nero in a favorable light. Some
sources, though, including some mentioned above, portray him as an emperor who
was popular with the common Roman people, especially in the East. Some modern
historians question the reliability of ancient sources when reporting on Nero’s
tyrannical acts.
Family
Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, the future Nero, was born on 15 December
37 in
Antium
, near Rome. He was the only son of
Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus
and
Agrippina the Younger
, sister of Emperor
Caligula
.
Nero’s father Gnaeus was the son of
Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus
(consul 16 BC) and
Antonia Major
. Gnaeus was thus the grandson of
Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 32 BC) and probably
Aemilia Lepida
on his father’s side, and the
grandson of
Mark Antony
and
Octavia Minor
on his mother’s side. Thus, Nero
had as his paternal grandmother Antonia Maior, and also claimed more remote
descent from
Antonia Minor
as a great-grandson—later
grandson after Claudius adopted him.
Through Octavia, Nero was the grandnephew of Caesar Augustus. Nero’s father
had been employed as a
praetor
and was a member of Caligula’s staff
when the latter traveled to the East (some apparently think Suetonius refers to
Augustus’ adopted son Gaius Caesar here, but this is not likely).
Nero’s father was described by Suetonius as a murderer and a cheat who was
charged by Emperor
Tiberius
with treason, adultery, and incest.
Tiberius died, allowing him to escape these charges. Nero’s father died of
edema
(“dropsy”) in 39 when Nero was two.
Nero’s mother was Agrippina the Younger, a great-granddaughter of
Caesar Augustus
and his wife
Scribonia
through their daughter
Julia the Elder
and her husband
Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa
. Agrippina’s father,
Germanicus
, was a grandson of Augustus’s wife,
Livia
, on one side and to Mark Antony and
Octavia on the other. Germanicus’ mother Antonia Minor, was a daughter of
Octavia Minor and Mark Antony. Octavia was Augustus’ elder sister. Germanicus
was also the adopted son of Tiberius. Agrippina poisoned her second husband
Passienus Crispus, so many ancient historians also accuse her of murdering her
third husband, the emperor Claudius.
Rise to power
Coin issued under
Claudius
celebrating young Nero as
the future emperor, c. 50.
Nero was not expected to become Emperor because his maternal uncle,
Caligula
, had begun his reign at the age of 25
with enough time to produce his own heir. Nero’s mother, Agrippina, lost favor
with Caligula and was exiled in 39 after her husband’s death.[15]
Caligula seized Nero’s inheritance and sent him to be raised by his less wealthy
aunt,
Domitia Lepida
, who was the mother of
Valeria Messalina
, Claudius’s third wife.
Caligula, his wife
Caesonia
and their infant daughter
Julia Drusilla
were murdered on 24 January 41.
These events led
Claudius
, Caligula’s uncle, to become emperor.
Claudius allowed Agrippina to return from exile.
Claudius had married twice before marrying Valeria Messalina. His previous
marriages produced three children including a son, Drusus, who died at a young
age. He had two children with Messalina –
Claudia Octavia
(born 40) and Britannicus (born
41). Messalina was executed by Claudius in the year 48.
In 49 AD, Claudius married a fourth time, to Nero’s mother Agrippina. To aid
Claudius politically, young Nero was adopted in 50 and took the name Nero
Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus . Nero was older than his stepbrother
Britannicus, and thus became heir to the throne.
Nero was proclaimed an adult in 51 at the age of 14. He was appointed
proconsul
, entered and first addressed the
Senate
, made joint public appearances with
Claudius, and was featured in coinage. In 53, he married his stepsister Claudia
Octavia.
Emperor (54 AD)
Early rule
Nero and
Agrippina
. Agrippina crowns her
young son Nero with a laurel wreath. She carries a
cornucopia
, symbol of fortune and
plenty, and he wears the armour and cloak of a Roman commander, with
a helmet on the ground at his feet. The scene refers to Nero’s
accession as emperor in 54 AD and is dated before 59 AD when Nero
had Agrippina murdered.[24]
An Aureus
of Nero and his mother,
Agrippina
, c. 54.
Claudius
died in 54 and Nero, taking the name
Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, was established as Emperor.
Though accounts vary, many ancient historians state
Agrippina
poisoned Claudius. According to
Pliny the Elder
, she used poison mushrooms. It
is not known how much Nero knew or if he was even involved in the death of
Claudius.
- Suetonius wrote “…for even if he was not the instigator of the
emperor’s death, he was at least privy to it, as he openly admitted; for he
used afterwards to laud mushrooms, the vehicle in which the poison was
administered to Claudius, as “the food of the gods,” as the Greek proverb
has it. At any rate, after Claudius’ death he vented on him every kind of
insult, in act and word, charging him now with folly and now with cruelty;
for it was a favourite joke of his to say that Claudius had ceased “to play
the fool among mortals, lengthening the first syllable of the word morari,
and he disregarded many of his decrees and acts as the work of a madman and
a dotard. Finally, he neglected to enclose the place where his body was
burned except with a low and mean wall.”
Nero became Emperor at 17 when the news of Claudius’ death was made known,the
youngest emperor until that time. Ancient historians describe Nero’s early reign
as being strongly influenced by his mother, Agrippina, his tutor
Lucius Annaeus Seneca
, and the Praetorian
Prefect
Sextus Afranius Burrus
, especially in the first
year. Other tutors were less often mentioned, such as
Alexander of Aegae
.
Very early in Nero’s rule, problems arose from competition for influence
between Agrippina and Nero’s two main advisers, Seneca and Burrus.
In 54, Agrippina tried to sit down next to Nero while he met with an Armenian
envoy, but Seneca stopped her and prevented a scandalous scene (as it was
unimaginable at that time for a woman to be in the same room as men doing
official business). Nero’s friends also mistrusted Agrippina and told Nero to
beware of his mother.
Nero was reportedly unsatisfied with his marriage to
Octavia
and entered into an affair with
Claudia Acte
, a former slave. In 55, Agrippina
attempted to intervene in favor of Octavia and demanded that her son dismiss
Acte. Nero, with the support of Seneca, resisted the intervention of his mother
in his personal affairs.
With Agrippina’s influence over her son severed, she reportedly began pushing
for Britannicus, Nero’s stepbrother, to become emperor. Nearly fifteen-year-old
Britannicus, heir-designate prior to Nero’s adoption, was still legally a minor,
but was approaching legal adulthood.[36]
According to Tacitus, Agrippina hoped that with her support, Britannicus, being
the blood son of Claudius, would be seen as the true heir to the throne by the
state over Nero. However, the youth died suddenly and suspiciously on 12
February 55, the very day before his proclamation as an adult had been set.
Nero claimed that Britannicus died from an epileptic seizure, but ancient
historians all claim Britannicus’ death came from Nero’s poisoning him.
Supposedly, he enlisted the services of Locusta, a woman who specialized in the
manufacture of poisons. She devised a mixture to kill Britannicus, but after
testing it unsuccessfully on a slave, Nero angrily threatened to have her put to
death if she did not come up with something usable. Locusta then devised a new
concoction that she promised would “kill swifter than a viper.”
Her promise was fulfilled after Britannicus consumed it at a dinner party
from water used to cool his wine, which had already been tasted, and succumbed
within minutes.[38]
After the death of Britannicus, Agrippina was accused of slandering Octavia and
Nero ordered her out of the imperial residence.
Matricide and consolidation of power
Coin of Nero and
Poppaea Sabina
Over time, Nero became progressively more powerful, freeing himself of his
advisers and eliminating rivals to the throne. In 55, he removed
Marcus Antonius Pallas
, an ally of Agrippina,
from his position in the treasury. Pallas, along with
Burrus
, was accused of conspiring against the
Emperor to bring
Faustus Sulla
to the throne.
Seneca
was accused of having relations with
Agrippina and embezzlement. Seneca succeeded in having himself, Pallas and
Burrus acquitted. According to
Cassius Dio
, at this time, Seneca and Burrus
reduced their role in governing from careful management to mere moderation of
Nero.
In 58, Nero became romantically involved with
Poppaea Sabina
, the wife of his friend and
future emperor Otho
. Reportedly because a marriage to Poppaea
and a divorce from Octavia did not seem politically feasible with Agrippina
alive, Nero ordered the murder of his mother in 59. A number of modern
historians find this an unlikely motive as Nero did not marry Poppaea until 62 .
Additionally, according to
Suetonius
, Poppaea did not divorce her husband
until after Agrippina’s death, making it unlikely that the already married
Poppaea would be pressing Nero for marriage. Some modern historians theorize
that Nero’s execution of Agrippina was prompted by her plotting to set
Rubellius Plautus
on the throne. According to
Suetonius
, Nero tried to kill his mother
through a planned shipwreck, which took the life of her friend,
Acerronia Polla
, but when Agrippina survived,
he had her executed and framed it as a suicide. The incident is also recorded by
Tacitus.
The Remorse of the Emperor Nero after the Murder of his Mother,
by
John William Waterhouse
, 1878.
In 62, Nero’s adviser,
Burrus
, died. Additionally, Seneca was again
faced with embezzlement charges. Seneca asked Nero for permission to retire from
public affairs. Nero divorced and banished
Octavia
on grounds of infertility, leaving him
free to marry the pregnant Poppaea. After public protests, Nero was forced to
allow Octavia to return from exile, but she was executed shortly after her
return.
Nero also was reported to have kicked Poppaea to death in 65 before she could
have his second child. However, modern historians, noting Suetonius, Tacitus and
Cassius Dio’s possible bias against Nero and the likelihood that they did not
have eyewitness accounts of private events, postulate that Poppaea may have died
because of complications of miscarriage or childbirth.
Accusations of treason being plotted against Nero and the Senate first
appeared in 62. The Senate ruled that Antistius, a praetor, should be put to
death for speaking ill of Nero at a party. Later, Nero ordered the exile of
Fabricius Veiento who slandered the Senate in a book. Tacitus writes that the
roots of the conspiracy led by
Gaius Calpurnius Piso
began in this year. To
consolidate power, Nero executed a number of people in 62 and 63 including his
rivals
Pallas
, Rubellius Plautus and Faustus Sulla.[59]
According to Suetonius, Nero “showed neither discrimination nor moderation in
putting to death whomsoever he pleased” during this period.
Nero’s consolidation of power also included a slow usurping of authority from
the Senate. In 54, Nero promised to give the Senate powers equivalent to those
under Republican rule. By 65, senators complained that they had no power left
and this led to the
Pisonian conspiracy
.
Other relationships
When Nero’s wife
Poppaea Sabina
died in 65, Nero went into deep
mourning. Her body was not cremated, it was stuffed with spices, embalmed and
put in the
Mausoleum of Augustus
. She was given a
state funeral
. Nero praised her during the
funeral eulogy and gave her divine honors. It is said that Nero “burned ten
years’ worth of Arabia’s incense production at her funeral.
In the beginning of 66, he married
Statilia Messalina
. She was already married
when she became Nero’s mistress in 65 AD, with Statilia’s husband being driven
to suicide in 66, so Nero could marry Statilia. She was one of the few of Nero’s
courtiers who survived the fall of his reign.
In 67, Nero ordered a young
freedman
,
Sporus
, to be castrated and then married him.
According to
Dion Cassius
, Sporus bore an uncanny
resemblance to Sabina, and Nero even called him by his dead wife’s name.
Administrative
policies
Over the course of his reign, Nero often made rulings that pleased the lower
class. Nero was criticized as being obsessed with personal popularity.
Nero began his reign in 54 by promising the Senate more autonomy. In this
first year, he forbade others to refer to him with regard to enactments, for
which he was praised by the Senate. Nero was known for spending his time
visiting brothels and taverns during this period.
In 55, Nero began taking on a more active role as an administrator. He was
consul
four times between 55 and 60. During
this period, some ancient historians speak fairly well of Nero and contrast it
with his later rule.
Under Nero, restrictions were put on the amount of bail and fines. Also, fees
for lawyers were limited. There was a discussion in the Senate on the misconduct
of the freedmen class, and a strong demand was made that patrons should have the
right of revoking freedom. Nero supported the freedmen and ruled that patrons
had no such right.
The Senate tried to pass a law in which the crimes of one slave applied to
all slaves within a household. Despite riots from the people, Nero supported the
Senate on their measure, and deployed troops to organise the execution of 400
slaves affected by the law. However, he vetoed strong measures against the
freedmen affected by the case.
After tax collectors were accused of being too harsh to the poor, Nero
transferred collection authority to lower commissioners. Nero banned any
magistrate or procurator from exhibiting public entertainment for fear that the
venue was being used as a method to sway the populace. Additionally, there were
many impeachments and removals of government officials along with arrests for
extortion and corruption.
When further complaints arose that the poor were being overly taxed, Nero
attempted to repeal all indirect taxes. The Senate convinced him this action
would bankrupt the public treasury. As a compromise, taxes were cut from 4.5% to
2.5%. Additionally, secret government tax records were ordered to become public.
To lower the cost of food imports, merchant ships were declared tax-exempt.
In imitation of the Greeks, Nero built a number of gymnasiums and theatres.
Enormous gladiatorial shows were also held. Nero also established the
quinquennial Neronia
. The festival included
games, poetry, and theater. Historians indicate that there was a belief that
theatre led to immorality. Others considered that to have performers dressed in
Greek clothing was old fashioned. Some questioned the large public expenditure
on entertainment.
In 64,
Rome burned
. Nero enacted a public relief
effort as well as significant reconstruction. A number of other major
construction projects occurred in Nero’s late reign. Nero had the marshes of
Ostia filled with rubble from the fire. He erected the large
Domus Aurea
. In 67, Nero attempted to have a
canal dug at the
Isthmus of Corinth
. Ancient historians state
that these projects and others exacerbated the drain on the State’s budget.
The cost to rebuild Rome was immense, requiring funds the state treasury did
not have. Nero devalued the
Roman currency
for the first time in the
Empire’s history. He reduced the weight of the
denarius
from 84 per
Roman pound
to 96 (3.85 grams to 3.35 grams).
He also reduced the silver purity from 99.5% to 93.5%—the silver weight dropping
from 3.83 grams to 3.4 grams. Furthermore, Nero reduced the weight of the
aureus
from 40 per Roman pound to 45 (8 grams
to 7.2 grams).
Between 62 and 67, according to
Plinius the Elder
and Seneca, Nero promoted an
expedition to discover the sources of the
Nile River
. It was the first exploration of
equatorial Africa
from Europe in history. However, Nero’s
expedition up the Nile failed because water plants had clogged the river,
denying Nero’s vessels access to the
Sudd of Nubia
.
The economic policy of Nero is a point of debate among scholars. According to
ancient historians, Nero’s construction projects were overly extravagant and the
large number of expenditures under Nero left Italy “thoroughly exhausted by
contributions of money” with “the provinces ruined.”[90][91]
Modern historians, though, note that the period was riddled with deflation and
that it is likely that Nero’s spending came in the form of public works projects
and charity intended to ease economic troubles.
Great Fire of
Rome (64 AD)
The Great Fire of Rome erupted on the night of 18 July to 19 July 64. The
fire started at the southeastern end of the
Circus Maximus
in shops selling flammable
goods.
Artwork depicting the
Great Fire of Rome
.
The extent of the fire is uncertain. According to
Tacitus
, who was nine at the time of the fire,
it spread quickly and burned for over five days. It destroyed three of fourteen
Roman districts and severely damaged seven. The only other historian who lived
through the period and mentioned the fire is
Pliny the Elder
, who wrote about it in passing.
Other historians who lived through the period (including
Josephus
,
Dio Chrysostom
,
Plutarch
, and
Epictetus
) make no mention of it in what
remains of their work.
It is uncertain who or what actually caused the fire—whether accident or
arson
.
Suetonius
and
Cassius Dio
favor Nero as the
arsonist
, so he could build a palatial complex.
Tacitus mentions that Christians confessed to the crime, but it is not known
whether these confessions were induced by torture. However, accidental fires
were common in ancient Rome. In fact, Rome suffered another large fire in 69 and
in 80.
It was said by Suetonius and Cassius Dio that Nero sang the “Sack
of Ilium” in stage costume while the city burned. Popular legend
claims that Nero played the
fiddle
at the time of the fire, an
anachronism
based merely on the concept of the
lyre, a stringed instrument associated with Nero and his
performances. (There were no fiddles in 1st-century Rome.) Tacitus’s account,
however, has Nero in
Antium
at the time of the fire. Tacitus also
said that Nero playing his lyre and singing while the city burned was only
rumor.
According to Tacitus, upon hearing news of the fire, Nero returned to Rome to
organize a relief effort, which he paid for from his own funds. Nero’s
contributions to the relief extended to personally taking part in the search for
and rescue of victims of the blaze, spending days searching the debris without
even his bodyguards.[citation
needed] After the fire, Nero opened his palaces to
provide shelter for the homeless, and arranged for food supplies to be delivered
in order to prevent starvation among the survivors.
In the wake of the fire, he made a new urban development plan. Houses after
the fire were spaced out, built in brick, and faced by
porticos
on wide roads. Nero also built a new
palace complex known as the
Domus Aurea
in an area cleared by the fire.
This included lush artificial landscapes and a 30-meter-tall statue of himself,
the
Colossus of Nero
. The size of this complex is
debated (from 100 to 300 acres). To find the necessary funds for the
reconstruction,
tributes
were imposed on the provinces of the
empire.
Tacitus
notes
that the population searched for a
scapegoat and rumors held Nero responsible. To deflect blame, Nero targeted
Christians. He ordered Christians to be thrown to dogs, while others were
crucified and burned.
Public performances
Nero enjoyed driving a one-horse chariot, singing to the lyre, and poetry. He
even composed songs that were performed by other entertainers throughout the
empire. At first, Nero only performed for a private audience.
In 64 AD., Nero began singing in public in
Neapolis
in order to improve his popularity. He
also sang at the second
quinquennial Neronia
in 65. It was said that
Nero craved the attention, but historians also write that Nero was encouraged to
sing and perform in public by the Senate, his inner circle and the people.
Ancient historians strongly criticize his choice to perform, calling it
shameful.
Nero was convinced to participate in the
Olympic Games
of 67 in order to improve
relations with Greece and display Roman dominance. As a competitor, Nero raced a
ten-horse chariot and nearly died after being thrown from it. He also performed
as an actor and a singer. Though Nero faltered in his racing (in one case,
dropping out entirely before the end) and acting competitions, he won these
crowns nevertheless and paraded them when he returned to Rome. The victories are
attributed to Nero bribing the judges and his status as emperor.
War and peace with
Parthia
Shortly after Nero’s accession to the throne in 54, the Roman
vassal
kingdom of Armenia
overthrew their
Iberian
prince
Rhadamistus
and he was replaced with the
Parthian
prince
Tiridates
. This was seen as a Parthian invasion
of Roman territory. There was concern in Rome over how the young Emperor would
handle the situation. Nero reacted by immediately sending the military to the
region under the command of
Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo
. The Parthians
temporarily relinquished control of Armenia to Rome.
The peace did not last and full-scale war broke out in 58. The Parthian king
Vologases I
refused to remove his brother
Tiridates from Armenia. The Parthians began a full-scale invasion of the
Armenian kingdom. Commander Corbulo responded and repelled most of the Parthian
army that same year. Tiridates retreated and Rome again controlled most of
Armenia.
Nero was acclaimed in public for this initial victory.
Tigranes
, a Cappadocian noble raised in Rome,
was installed by Nero as the new ruler of Armenia. Corbulo was appointed
governor of Syria as a reward.
In 62, Tigranes invaded the Parthian province of
Adiabene
. Again, Rome and Parthia were at war
and this continued until 63. Parthia began building up for a strike against the
Roman province of Syria. Corbulo tried to convince Nero to continue the war, but
Nero opted for a peace deal instead. There was anxiety in Rome about eastern
grain supplies and a budget deficit.
The result was a deal where Tiridates again became the Armenian king, but was
crowned in Rome by Emperor Nero. In the future, the
king of Armenia
was to be a Parthian prince,
but his appointment required approval from the Romans. Tiridates was forced to
come to Rome and partake in ceremonies meant to display Roman dominance.
This peace deal of 63 was a considerable victory for Nero politically. Nero
became very popular in the eastern provinces of Rome and with the Parthians as
well. The peace between Parthia and Rome lasted 50 years until Emperor
Trajan
of Rome invaded Armenia in 114.
Other major power struggles and rebellions
A plaster bust of Nero,
Pushkin Museum
, Moscow.
The war with Parthia was not Nero’s only major war but he was both criticized
and praised for an aversion to battle. Like many emperors, Nero faced a number
of rebellions and power struggles within the empire.
- British Revolt of 60–61 (Boudica’s Uprising)
In 60, a major rebellion broke out in the province of
Britannia
. While the governor
Gaius Suetonius Paullinus
and his troops were
busy capturing the island of Mona (Anglesey)
from the druids, the tribes of the southeast staged a revolt led by queen
Boudica
of the
Iceni
. Boudica and her troops destroyed three
cities before the army of Paullinus could return, receive reinforcements, and
quell the rebellion in 61. Fearing Paullinus himself would provoke further
rebellion, Nero replaced him with the more passive
Publius Petronius Turpilianus
.
- The Pisonian Conspiracy of 65
In 65,
Gaius Calpurnius Piso
, a Roman statesman,
organized a conspiracy against Nero with the help of Subrius Flavus and
Sulpicius Asper, a tribune and a centurion of the Praetorian Guard. According to
Tacitus, many conspirators wished to “rescue the state” from the emperor and
restore the
Republic
. The freedman Milichus discovered the
conspiracy and reported it to Nero’s secretary,
Epaphroditos
. As a result, the conspiracy
failed and its members were executed including
Lucan
, the poet. Nero’s previous advisor,
Seneca
was ordered to commit suicide after
admitting he discussed the plot with the conspirators.
- The First Jewish War of 66–70
In 66, there was a Jewish revolt in Judea stemming from Greek and Jewish
religious tension. In 67, Nero dispatched
Vespasian
to restore order. This revolt was
eventually put down in 70, after Nero’s death. This revolt is famous for Romans
breaching the walls of Jerusalem and destroying the Second
Temple of Jerusalem
.
The revolt of Vindex and Galba and the death of Nero
A marble bust of Nero, Antiquarium of the
Palatine
.
In March 68, Gaius Julius Vindex
, the governor of
Gallia Lugdunensis
, rebelled against Nero’s tax
policies.
Lucius Verginius Rufus
, the governor of
Germania Superior
, was ordered to put down
Vindex’s rebellion. In an attempt to gain support from outside his own province,
Vindex called upon Servius Sulpicius Galba
, the governor of
Hispania Tarraconensis
, to join the rebellion
and further, to declare himself emperor in opposition to Nero.
At the
Battle of Vesontio
in May 68, Verginius’ forces
easily defeated those of Vindex and the latter committed suicide. However, after
putting down this one rebel, Verginius’ legions attempted to proclaim their own
commander as Emperor. Verginius refused to act against Nero, but the discontent
of the legions of Germany and the continued opposition of Galba in Spain did not
bode well for Nero.
While Nero had retained some control of the situation, support for Galba
increased despite his being officially declared a public enemy. The prefect of
the
Praetorian Guard
,
Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus
, also abandoned his
allegiance to the Emperor and came out in support for Galba.
In response, Nero fled Rome with the intention of going to the port of
Ostia
and, from there, to take a fleet to one
of the still-loyal eastern provinces. However, he abandoned the idea when some
army officers openly refused to obey his commands, responding with a line from
Vergil
‘s
Aeneid
: “Is it so dreadful a thing then to
die?” Nero then toyed with the idea of fleeing to
Parthia
, throwing himself upon the mercy of
Galba, or to appeal to the people and beg them to pardon him for his past
offences “and if he could not soften their hearts, to entreat them at least to
allow him the prefecture of Egypt”. Suetonius reports that the text of this
speech was later found in Nero’s writing desk, but that he dared not give it
from fear of being torn to pieces before he could reach the Forum.
Nero returned to Rome and spent the evening in the palace. After sleeping, he
awoke at about midnight to find the palace guard had left. Dispatching messages
to his friends’ palace chambers for them to come, he received no answers. Upon
going to their chambers personally, he found them all abandoned. When he called
for a gladiator or anyone else adept with a sword to kill him, no one appeared.
He cried, “Have I neither friend nor foe?” and ran out as if to throw himself
into the Tiber
.
Returning, Nero sought for some place where he could hide and collect his
thoughts. An imperial freedman,
Phaon
, offered his villa, located 4 miles
outside the city. Travelling in disguise, Nero and four loyal
freedman
,
Epaphroditos
,
Phaon
,
Neophytus
, and
Sporus
, reached the villa, where Nero ordered
them to dig a grave for him. At this time, a courier arrived with a report that
the Senate had declared Nero a public enemy and that it was their intention to
execute him by beating him to death.
At this news, Nero prepared himself for
suicide
. Losing his nerve, he first begged for
one of his companions to set an example by first killing himself. At last, the
sound of approaching horsemen drove Nero to face the end. However, he still
could not bring himself to take his own life but instead he forced his private
secretary,
Epaphroditos
, to perform the task.[citation
needed] Nero’s famous dying words were “Qualis
artifex pereo,” which translates into English as “What an artist dies in me!”
Events and revolts leading up to Nero’s death are portrayed in the 1951 film,
Quo Vadis
, with Peter Ustinov playing Nero.
When one of the horsemen entered, upon his seeing Nero all but dead he
attempted to stop the bleeding in vain. Nero died on 9 June 68, the anniversary
of the death of Octavia, and was buried in the Mausoleum of the Domitii
Ahenobarbi, in what is now the
Villa Borghese
(Pincian
Hill) area of Rome.
With his death, the
Julio-Claudian dynasty
ended. Chaos ensued in
the
year of the Four Emperors
.
Post Mortem
According to Suetonius and Cassius Dio, the people of Rome celebrated the
death of Nero.Tacitus, though, describes a more complicated political
environment. Tacitus mentions that Nero’s death was welcomed by Senators,
nobility and the upper class. The lower-class, slaves, frequenters of the arena
and the theater, and “those who were supported by the famous excesses of Nero”,
on the other hand, were upset with the news. Members of the military were said
to have mixed feelings, as they had allegiance to Nero, but were bribed to
overthrow him.
Eastern sources, namely Philostratus II and
Apollonius of Tyana
, mention that Nero’s death
was mourned as he “restored the liberties of
Hellas
with a wisdom and moderation quite alien
to his character” and that he “held our liberties in his hand and respected
them.”
Modern scholarship generally holds that, while the Senate and more well-off
individuals welcomed Nero’s death, the general populace was “loyal to the end
and beyond, for Otho and Vitellius both thought it worthwhile to appeal to their
nostalgia.”
Nero’s name was erased from some monuments, in what Edward Champlin regards
as an “outburst of private zeal”. Many portraits of Nero were reworked to
represent other figures; according to Eric R. Varner, over fifty such images
survive. This reworking of images is often explained as part of the way in which
the memory of disgraced emperors was condemned posthumously (see
damnatio memoriae
). Champlin, however, doubts
that the practice is necessarily negative and notes that some continued to
create images of Nero long after his death.
The civil war during the
year of the Four Emperors
was described by
ancient historians as a troubling period. According to Tacitus, this instability
was rooted in the fact that emperors could no longer rely on the perceived
legitimacy of the imperial bloodline, as Nero and those before him could.
Galba
began his short reign with the execution
of many allies of Nero and possible future enemies. One such notable enemy
included
Nymphidius Sabinus
, who claimed to be the son
of Emperor Caligula
.
Otho
overthrew Galba. Otho was said to be liked
by many soldiers because he had been a friend of Nero’s and resembled him
somewhat in temperament. It was said that the common Roman hailed Otho as Nero
himself. Otho used “Nero” as a surname and reerected many statues to Nero.
Vitellius
overthrew Otho. Vitellius began his
reign with a large funeral for Nero complete with songs written by Nero.
After Nero’s suicide in 68, there was a widespread belief, especially in the
eastern provinces, that he was not dead and somehow would return. This belief
came to be known as the
Nero Redivivus Legend
.
The legend of Nero’s return lasted for hundreds of years after Nero’s death.
Augustine of Hippo
wrote of the legend as a
popular belief in 422.
At least
three Nero imposters
emerged leading
rebellions. The first, who sang and played the cithara or lyre and whose face
was similar to that of the dead emperor, appeared in 69 during the reign of
Vitellius. After persuading some to recognize him, he was captured and executed.
Sometime during the reign of
Titus
(79–81), another impostor appeared in
Asia and sang to the accompaniment of the lyre and looked like Nero but he, too,
was killed. Twenty years after Nero’s death, during the reign of
Domitian
, there was a third pretender. He was
supported by the Parthians, who only reluctantly gave him up, and the matter
almost came to war.
Physical appearance
In his book The Lives of the Twelve Caesars,
Suetonius
describes Nero as “about the average
height, his body marked with spots and
malodorous
, his hair light blond, his features
regular rather than attractive, his eyes blue and somewhat weak, his neck over
thick, his belly prominent, and his legs very slender.”
Historiography
The history of Nero’s reign is problematic in that no historical sources
survived that were contemporary with Nero. These first histories at one time did
exist and were described as biased and fantastical, either overly critical or
praising of Nero. The original sources were also said to contradict on a number
of events. Nonetheless, these lost primary sources were the basis of surviving
secondary and tertiary histories on Nero written by the next generations of
historians.
A few of the contemporary historians are known by name.
Fabius Rusticus
,
Cluvius Rufus
and
Pliny the Elder
all wrote condemning histories
on Nero that are now lost. There were also pro-Nero histories, but it is unknown
who wrote them or for what deeds Nero was praised.
The bulk of what is known of Nero comes from
Tacitus
,
Suetonius
and
Cassius Dio
, who were all of the senatorial
class. Tacitus and Suetonius wrote their histories on Nero over fifty years
after his death, while Cassius Dio wrote his history over 150 years after Nero’s
death. These sources contradict on a number of events in Nero’s life including
the death of Claudius
, the death of
Agrippina
, and the Roman fire of 64, but they
are consistent in their condemnation of Nero.
Nero and religion
Jewish tradition
At the end of 66, conflict broke out between Greeks and Jews in Jerusalem and
Caesarea. According to the
Talmud
, Nero went to Jerusalem and shot arrows
in all four directions. All the arrows landed in the city. He then asked a
passing child to repeat the verse he had learned that day. The child responded,
“I will lay my vengeance upon Edom by the hand of my people Israel” (Ez.
25,14
). Nero became terrified, believing that
God wanted the
Temple in Jerusalem
to be destroyed, but would
punish the one to carry it out. Nero said, “He desires to lay waste His House
and to lay the blame on me,” whereupon he fled and converted to Judaism to avoid
such retribution.
Vespasian
was then dispatched to put down the
rebellion.
The Talmud adds that the sage
Reb Meir Baal HaNess
, a prominent supporter of
the
Bar Kokhba
rebellion
against Roman rule, was a descendant
of Nero.
Roman and Greek sources nowhere report Nero’s alleged trip to Jerusalem or
his alleged conversion to Judaism. There is also no record of Nero having any
offspring who survived infancy: his only recorded child,
Claudia Augusta
, died aged 4 months.
Christian tradition
Christian
tradition and secular historical
sources hold Nero as the first major state sponsor of
Christian persecution
, and sometimes as the
killer of
Apostles
Peter
and
Paul
. Some 2nd- and 3rd-century theologians,
among others, recorded their belief that Nero would return from death or exile,
usually as “the
Anti-Christ
. He is also seen as one of the most
savage persecutors of
Christians
.”
First persecutor
Non-Christian historian
Tacitus
describes Nero extensively torturing
and executing Christians after the fire of 64.
Suetonius
also mentions Nero punishing
Christians, though he does so as a praise and does not connect it with the fire.
Christian writer
Tertullian
(c. 155–230) was the first to call
Nero the first persecutor of Christians. He wrote, “Examine your records. There
you will find that Nero was the first that persecuted this doctrine”.
Lactantius
(c. 240–320) also said that Nero
“first persecuted the servants of God”. as does
Sulpicius Severus
. However, Suetonius writes
that, “since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of
Chrestus, he [emperor
Claudius
] expelled them from Rome” (“Iudaeos
impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantis Roma expulit“). These expelled “Jews”
may have been early Christians, although Suetonius is not explicit. Nor is the
Bible explicit, calling Aquila of Pontus and his wife, Priscilla, both expelled
from Italy at the time, “Jews.”
Killer of Peter and
Paul
The first text to suggest that Nero killed an apostle is the apocryphal
Ascension of Isaiah
, a Christian writing
from the 2nd century. It says, the slayer of his mother, who himself this
king, will persecute the plant which the Twelve Apostles of the Beloved have
planted. Of the Twelve one will be delivered into his hands.
Bishop
Eusebius
of
Caesarea
(c. 275–339) was the first to write
that Paul was beheaded in Rome during the reign of Nero. He states that Nero’s
persecution led to Peter and Paul’s deaths, but that Nero did not give any
specific orders. Several other accounts have Paul surviving his two years in
Rome and traveling to
Hispania
.
Peter is first said to have been
crucified upside-down
in Rome during Nero’s
reign (but not by Nero) in the
apocryphal
Acts of Peter
(c. 200). The account ends with
Paul still alive and Nero abiding by God’s command not to persecute any more
Christians.
By the 4th century, a number of writers were stating that Nero killed Peter
and Paul.
The Antichrist
The
Ascension of Isaiah
is the first text to
suggest that Nero was the Antichrist. It claims that a “lawless king, the slayer
of his mother…will come and there will come with him all the powers of this
world, and they will hearken unto him in all that he desires.”
The
Sibylline Oracles
, Book 5 and 8, written in the
2nd century, speak of Nero returning and bringing destruction. Within Christian
communities, these writings, along with others, fueled the belief that Nero
would return as the Antichrist. In 310,
Lactantius
wrote that Nero suddenly
disappeared, and even the burial-place of that noxious wild beast was nowhere to
be seen. This has led some persons of extravagant imagination to suppose that,
having been conveyed to a distant region, he is still reserved alive; and to him
they apply the Sibylline verses.
In 422,
Augustine of Hippo
wrote about 2 Thessalonians
2:1–11, where he believed Paul mentioned the coming of the Antichrist. Though he
rejects the theory, Augustine mentions that many Christians believed that Nero
was the Antichrist or would return as the Antichrist. He wrote, so that in
saying, “For the mystery of iniquity doth already work,” he alluded to Nero,
whose deeds already seemed to be as the deeds of Antichrist.
Some modern biblical scholars such as Delbert Hillers (Johns
Hopkins University) of the
American Schools of Oriental Research
and the
editors of the Oxford & Harper Collins Study Bibles, contend that the number
666
in the
Book of Revelation
is a code for Nero, a view
that is also supported in
Roman Catholic
Biblical commentaries.
The concept of Nero as the Antichrist is often a central belief of
Preterist
eschatology
.
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