Pergamon Regal Coinage 282BC Athena Magic & Bow Ancient Greek Coin i49671

Item: i49671

Authentic Ancient

Coin of:

Greek City of

Bronze 12mm (1.64 grams) Struck circa 282-133 B.C.
Reference: Sear 7233
Head of Athena right, wearing crested Corinthian helmet.
ΦΙΛE / TAIPOY above and beneath bow.

This issue is inscribed with the name of the dynasty’s founder, Philetairos, and
firm attributions
to particular reigns are not yet possible.

Situated in the Kaikos valley, about 15 miles from the coast, Pergamon was a
city of uncertain origin and of no great importance before the time of Alexander
the Great. In the 3rd century B.C. it became the center of the independent
kingdom ruled by the Attalid dynasty founded by Philetairos. The city was
extended and beautified as the prosperity of the kingdom increased, and by the
late Hellenistic times Pergamon ranked as one of the great cultural centers of
the Greek world. After the end of the kingdom, 133 B.C., Pergamon became capital
of the Roman province of Asia.

You are bidding on the exact item pictured,

Authenticity.

Athena
or Athene (Latin:

Minerva
),
also referred to as Pallas Athena, is the goddess of war, civilization,
wisdom, strength, strategy, crafts, justice and skill in
Greek mythology
.
Minerva
,
Athena’s Roman incarnation, embodies similar attributes. Athena is also a shrewd
companion of heroes

and the goddess

of heroic

endeavour. She is the
virgin

patron of Athens
.
The Athenians built the
Parthenon

on the Acropolis of her namesake city, Athens, in her honour (Athena Parthenos).
Athena’s cult as the patron of Athens seems to have existed from the earliest
times and was so persistent that archaic myths about her were recast to adapt to
cultural changes. In her role as a protector of the city (polis),
many people throughout the Greek world worshiped Athena as Athena Polias
(“Athena of the city”).
Athens

and Athena bear etymologically connected names.

Pergamon, Pergamum or b>Pérgamo (in

Greek

, Πέργαμος) was an ancient

Greek

city in modern-day

Turkey
, in

Mysia
, today

located 16 miles (26 km) from the

Aegean Sea

on a promontory

on the north side of the river

Caicus

(modern day

Bakırçay
),

that became the capital of the

Kingdom of Pergamon

during the

Hellenistic period

, under the

Attalid dynasty

, 281–133 BC. Today, the main sites of ancient Pergamon are

to the north and west of the modern city of

Bergama
.

//

 History

The

Attalid

kingdom was the

rump state

left after the collapse of the

Kingdom of Thrace
.

The Attalids, the descendants of Attalus, father of

Philetaerus

who came to power in 281 BC following the collapse of the

Kingdom of Thrace, were among the most loyal supporters of

Rome

in the Hellenistic world. Under

Attalus I

(241-197 BC), they allied with Rome against

Philip V of Macedon

, during the

first

and

second

Macedonian Wars

, and again under

Eumenes II

(197-158 BC), against

Perseus of Macedon

, during the

Third Macedonian War

. For support against the

Seleucids

, the

Attalids

were rewarded with all the former Seleucid domains in

Asia Minor

.

The Attalids ruled with intelligence and generosity. Many documents survive

showing how the Attalids would support the growth of towns through sending in

skilled artisans and by remitting taxes. They allowed the Greek cities in their

domains to maintain nominal independence. They sent gifts to Greek cultural

sites like Delphi
,

Delos
, and

Athens
. They

defeated the invading Celts

. They remodeled the

Acropolis of Pergamo

after the

Acropolis

in Athens. When

Attalus III

(138-133 BC) died without an heir in 133 BC he bequeathed the

whole of Pergamon to Rome, in order to prevent a civil war.

According to Christian tradition, the first bishop of Pergamon,

Antipas

, was martyred there in ca. 92 AD. (Revelation

2:13)

The

Ottoman

Sultan

Murad III

had two large alabaster

urns transported from the ruins of Pergamon and placed on two

sides of the nave in the

Hagia

Sophia
in Istanbul

.

 Notable

structures

 Upper

Acropolis

The

Great Altar of Pergamon

is in the

Pergamon Museum

, Berlin. The base of this altar remains on the upper part of

the Acropolis. It was perhaps to this altar, believed dedicated to Zeus, that

John of Patmos referred to as “Satan’s Throne” in his Book of Revelation

(Revelation 2:12-13).

Other notable structures still in existence on the upper part of the

Acropolis include:

• The Hellenistic Theater with a seating capacity of 10,000. This had the

  steepest seating of any known theater in the ancient world.

• The Sanctuary of Trajan (also known as the

  Trajaneum

  )

• The Sanctuary of Athena
• The Library a.k.a.

  Athenaeum

• The Royal palaces
• The Heroön – a shrine where the kings of Pergamon, particularly, Attalus

  I and Eumenes II, were worshipped.

• The

  Temple of Dionysus

• The Upper Agora
• The Roman baths complex

Pergamon’s library on the Acropolis (the ancient

Library of Pergamum

) is the second best in the ancient Greek civilization.

When the

Ptolemies

stopped exporting

papyrus
,

partly because of competitors and partly because of shortages, the Pergamenes

invented a new substance to use in

codices
, called

pergaminus or pergamena (parchment)

after the city. This was made of fine

calfskin
, a

predecessor of

vellum

. The library at Pergamom was believed to contain 200,000 volumes,

which Mark Antony

later gave to

Cleopatra

as a wedding present.

 Lower

Acropolis

The lower part of the Acropolis has the following structures:

• the Upper Gymnasium
• the Middle Gymnasium
• the Lower Gymnasium
• the Temple of

  Demeter

• the Sanctuary of

  Hera

• the House of Attalus
• the Lower Agora and
• the Gate of

  Eumenes

 At

foot of Acropolis

 Sanctuary

of Asclepius

Three kilometers south of the Acropolis, down in the valley, there was the

Sanctuary of Asclepius

(also known as the

Asclepieion

), the god of healing. In this place people with health problems

could bathe in the water of the sacred spring, and in the patients’ dreams

Asclepius would appear in a vision to tell them how to cure their illness.

Archeology has found lots of gifts and dedications that people would make

afterwards, such as small terracotta body parts, no doubt representing what had

been healed. Notable extant structures in the Asclepieion include:

• the Roman theater
• the North Stoa
• the South Stoa
• the Temple of Asclepius
• a circular treatment center (sometimes known as the Temple of

  Telesphorus)

• a healing spring
• an underground passageway
• a library
• the Via Tecta (or the Sacred Way, which is a colonnaded street leading

  to the sanctuary) and

• a

  propylon

  .

 Serapis

Temple

Pergamon’s other notable structure is the

Serapis

Temple (Serapeum)

which was later transformed into the Red Basilica complex (or Kizil Avlu in

Turkish), about one kilometer south of the Acropolis. It consists of a main

building and two round towers. In the first century AD, the

Christian

Church at Pergamon inside the main building of the Red Basilica

was one of the

Seven Churches

to which the

Book of Revelation

was addressed (Revelation

2:12). The forecourt is still supported by the 193 m wide

Pergamon Bridge

, the largest bridge substruction of antiquity.^[5]

The bow and arrow is a projectile
weapon
system (a bow with
arrows
) that predates
recorded history
and is common to most
cultures
.
Archery
is the art, practice, or skill of
applying it.

Description

A bow is a flexible arc which shoots aerodynamic projectiles called
arrows
. A string joins the two ends of the bow
and when the string is drawn back, the ends of the bow are flexed. When the
string is released, the potential energy of the flexed stick is transformed into
the velocity of the arrow.
Archery
is the art or sport of shooting arrows
from bows.

Today, bows and arrows are used primarily for
hunting
and for the sport of
archery
. Though they are still occasionally
used as weapons of war
, the development of
gunpowder
and
muskets
, and the growing size of armies, led to
their replacement in warfare several centuries ago in much of the world.

Someone who makes bows is known as a
bowyer
, and one who makes arrows is a
fletcher
 —or in the case of the manufacture of
metal arrow heads, an arrow smith.

History

Scythians
shooting with bows,
Panticapeum
(known today as
Kertch
,
Ukraine
), 4th century BCE.

The bow and arrow is among the oldest composite projectile weapons invented;
only
spear throwers
and
darts
may predate it, having been in use since
30,000 BCE, with the oldest example from 17,500 BCE. However, despite its
ancient provenance, a number of cultures in historical times lacked the bow and
arrow, and in others
oral history
records a time before its
acquisition.

The earliest potential arrow heads date from about 64,000 years ago in the
South African
Sibudu Cave
, though their identification as
arrowheads (as opposed to
spear
or
dart
heads) is uncertain. The first actual bow
fragments are the Stellmoor bows from northern Germany. They were dated to about
8,000 BCE but were destroyed in
Hamburg
during the Second World War, before
carbon 14 dating
was available; their age is
attributed by archaeological association. The oldest bows in one piece are the
elm
Holmegaard bows
from
Denmark
which were dated to 9,000 BCE. High
performance wooden bows are currently made following the Holmegaard design.

The bow and arrow are still used in tribal warfare in
Africa
to this day. An example was documented
in 2009 in Kenya
when the
Kisii-tribe
and
Kalenjin-tribe
clashed resulting in four
deaths.

Construction

Polychrome small-scale model of the archer XI of the west pediment
of the
Temple of Aphaea
, ca. 505–500 BCE.

Parts of the bow

The basic elements of a bow are a pair of curved
elastic

limbs
, traditionally made from

wood, joined by a riser. Both ends of the limbs are connected by a
string known as the
bow string
. By pulling the string backwards the
archer
exerts
compressive force
on the string-facing section,
or
belly
, of the limbs as well as placing the
outer section, or
back
, under
tension
. While the string is held, this stores
the energy later released in putting the arrow to flight.^{[citation
needed]} The force required to hold the string
stationary at full draw is often used to express the power of a bow, and is
known as its draw weight, or weight. Other things being equal, a higher draw
weight means a more powerful bow, which is able to project arrows heavier,
faster, or a greater distance.

The various parts of the bow can be subdivided into further sections. The
topmost limb is known as the upper limb, while the bottom limb is the lower
limb. At the tip of each limb is a nock, which is used to attach the bowstring
to the limbs. The riser is usually divided into the grip, which is held by the
archer, as well as the arrow rest and the bow window. The arrow rest is a small
ledge or extension above the grip which the arrow rests upon while being aimed.
The bow window is that part of the riser above the grip, which contains the
arrow rest.

In bows drawn and held by hand, the maximum draw weight is determined by the
strength of the archer. The maximum distance the string could be displaced and
thus the longest arrow that could be loosed from it, a bow’s draw length, is
determined by the size of the archer.

A composite bow
uses a combination of materials
to create the limbs, allowing the use of materials specialized for the different
functions of a bow limb. The classic composite bow uses wood for lightness and
dimensional stability in the core, horn to store energy in compression, and
sinew
for its ability to store energy in
tension. Such bows, typically Asian, would often use a stiff end on the limb
end, having the effect of a recurve.^[16]
In this type of bow, this is known by the Arabic name ‘siyah’.

Modern construction materials for bows include
laminated
wood,
fiberglass
,
metals
, and
carbon fiber
components.

Arrows

An arrow usually consists of a shaft with an arrowhead attached to the front
end, with fletchings and a nock at the other. Modern arrows are usually made
from carbon fibre, aluminum, fiberglass, and wood shafts. Carbon shafts have the
advantage that they do not bend or warp, but they can often be too light weight
to shoot from some bows and are expensive. Aluminum shafts are less expensive
than carbon shafts, but they can bend and warp from use. Wood shafts are the
least expensive option but often will not be identical in weight and size to
each other and break more often than the other types of shafts. Arrow sizes vary
greatly across cultures and range from very short ones that require the use of
special equipment to be shot to ones in use in the
Amazon River
jungles that are 8.5 feet (2.6
metres) long. Most modern arrows are 22 inches (56 cm) to 30 inches (76 cm) in
length.

Arrows come in many types, among which are breasted, bob-tailed, barrelled,
clout, and target. A breasted arrow is thickest at the area right behind the
fletchings, and tapers towards the nock and head. A bob-tailed arrow is thickest
right behind the head, and tapers to the nock. A barrelled arrow is thickest in
the centre of the arrow. Target arrows are those arrows used for target shooting
rather than warfare or hunting, and usually have simple arrowheads.

Arrowheads

The end of the arrow that is designed to hit the target is called the
arrowhead. Usually, these are separate items that are attached to the arrow
shaft by either tangs or sockets. Materials used in the past for arrowheads
include flint, bone, horn, or metal. Most modern arrowheads are made of steel,
but wood and other traditional materials are still used occasionally. A number
of different types of arrowheads are known, with the most common being
bodkins
, broadheads, and piles. Bodkin heads
are simple spikes made of metal of various shapes, designed to pierce armour. A
broadhead arrowhead is usually triangular or leaf-shaped and has a sharpened
edge or edges. Broadheads are commonly used for hunting. A pile arrowhead is a
simple metal cone, either sharpened to a point or somewhat blunt, that is used
mainly for target shooting. A pile head is the same diameter as the arrow shaft
and is usually just fitted over the tip of the arrow. Other heads are known,
including the blunt head, which is flat at the end and is used for hunting small
game or birds, and is designed to not pierce the target nor embed itself in
trees or other objects and make recovery difficult. Another type of arrowhead is
a barbed head, usually used in warfare or hunting.

Bowstrings

Bowstrings may have a nocking point marked on them, which serves to mark
where the arrow is fitted to the bowstring before firing. The area around the
nocking point is usually bound with thread to protect the area around the
nocking point from wear by the archer’s hands. This section is called the
serving. At one end of the bowstring a loop is formed, which is permanent. The
other end of the bowstring also has a loop, but this is not permanently formed
into the bowstring but is constructed by tying a knot into the string to form a
loop. Traditionally this knot is known as the archer’s knot, but is a form of
the timber hitch
. The knot can be adjusted to
lengthen or shorten the bowstring. The adjustable loop is known as the “tail”.

Bowstrings have been constructed of many materials throughout history,
including fibres such as

flax, silk
, and

hemp. Other materials used were animal
guts
, animal
sinews
, and
rawhide
. Modern fibres such as
Dacron
or
Kevlar
are now used in bowstring construction,
as well as steel wires in some compound bows.
Compound bows
have a mechanical system of
pulley cams over which the bowstring is wound.

Types of bows

There is no one accepted system of classification of bows. Some systems
classify bows as either longbows or composite bows. In this system, a longbow is
any bow that is made from one material. Composite bows are made from two or more
layers of different materials. Other classifications divide bows into three
types — simple, backed, and composite. In this scheme, simple bows are made of
one material, backed bows are made of two layers, which could be similar or
different materials. Composite bows are made of three different layers, usually
different materials, but occasionally two of the layers are made from the same
material.

Common types of bow include

• Recurve bow
  : a bow with the tips curving
  away from the archer. The curves straighten out as the bow is drawn and the
  return of the tip to its curved state after release of the arrow adds extra
  velocity to the arrow.
• Reflex bow
  : a bow that curves completely
  away from the archer when unstrung. The curves are opposite to the direction
  in which the bow flexes while drawn.
• Self bow
  : a bow made from one piece of
  wood.
• Longbow
  : a self bow that is usually quite
  long, often over 5 feet (1.5 metres) long. The traditional
  English longbow
  was usually made of
  yew
  wood, but other woods are used also.
• Composite bow
  : a bow made of more than one
  material
• Compound
  : a bow with mechanical aids to
  help with drawing the bowstring. Usually, these aids are pulleys at the tips
  of the limbs.

Crossbow

In a crossbow
, the limbs of the bow, called a
prod, are attached at right angles to a crosspiece or
stock
in order to allow for mechanical pulling
and holding of the string. The mechanism that holds the drawn string has a
release or trigger that allows the string to be released. A crossbow shoots a
“bolt” rather than an arrow.