Septimius Severus
–
Roman Emperor
: 193-211 A.D. –
Silver Denarius 18mm (3.11 grams) Emesa mint: 193-211 A.D.
Reference: RIC 413; sear5 #6324; RSC 376.
IMP CAE L SEP SEV PERT AVG COS II, laureate head right
PIETAT AVG, Septimius standing left, sacrificing from patera over altar.
You are bidding on the exact item pictured,
provided with a Certificate of Authenticity and Lifetime Guarantee of
Authenticity.
In the
material culture
of
classical antiquity
,, a phiale or
patera (Latin pronunciation: [ˈpatera])
is a shallow ceramic or metal
libation
bowl. It often has a bulbous
indentation (omphalos,
“bellybutton”) in the center underside to facilitate holding it, in which case
it is sometimes called a mesomphalic phiale. It typically has no handles,
and no feet. (A drinking cup with handles is a
kylix
. A circular platter with a pair of
C-handles is not a patera, but a few paterae have a single long straight
handle.) Although the two terms may be used interchangeably, particularly in the
context of
Etruscan culture
, phiale is more common
in reference to Greek forms, and patera in a Roman setting.
-
Silver phiale (620-590 BC, from
Bayindir
village,
Elmali
, present-day Turkey
-
Octopus and dolphin motifs on a ceramic phiale (510–500 BC, from
Eretria
,
Euboea
)
-
Golden phiale (4th–3rd century BC)
-
Silver patera from
Hispania/font>
(Roman
Spain), 2nd–1st century BC)
Use
AA youth pours a libation to the deceased within a
naiskos
, a scene that may also
represent
Ganymede
serving
Zeus
( Apulian
red-figure
krater
, 340–320 BC)
Libation was a central and vital aspect of
ancient Greek religion
, and one of the simplest
and most common forms of religious practice. It is one of the basic religious
acts that define piety in ancient Greece, dating back to the
Bronze Age
and even
prehistoric Greece
. Libations were a part of
daily life, and the pious might perform them every day in the morning and
evening, as well as to begin meals. A libation most often consisted of mixed
wine and water, but could also be unmixed wine, honey, oil, water, or milk.
The form of libation called spondē is typically the ritualized pouring
of wine from a jug or bowl held in the hand. The most common ritual was to pour
the liquid from an
oinochoē
(wine jug) into a phiale. Libation
generally accompanied prayer. The Greeks stood when they prayed, either with
their arms uplifted, or in the act of libation with the right arm extended to
hold the phiale. After the wine offering was poured from the phiale, the
remainder of the contents was drunk by the celebrant.
In Roman art
, the libation is shown performed at
an
altar, mensa (sacrificial meal table)
,
or
tripod
. It was the simplest form of sacrifice,
and could be a sufficient offering by itself. The introductory rite (praefatio)
to an animal sacrifice included an incense and wine libation onto a burning
altar. Both
emperors
and divinities are frequently
depicted, especially on coins, pouring libations from a patera. Scenes of
libation and the patera itself commonly signify the quality of
pietas/font>
, religious duty or reverence.
-
Libation at a
symposium
(Attic
red-figure cup, ca. 480 BC)
-
Apollo pouring a libation (Attic
white-ground
kylix
, ca. 460 BC)
-
Etruscan priest with phiale (2nd century BC)
-
Roman priest,
capite velato
(2nd–3rd century
AD)
A veil is an article of clothing or cloth hanging that is intended to
cover some part of the
head
or
face, or an object of some significance. It is especially associated
with women and sacred objects.
One view is that as a religious item, it is intended to show honor to an
object or space. The actual sociocultural, psychological, and sociosexual
functions of veils have not been studied extensively but most likely include the
maintenance of social distance and the communication of social status and
cultural identity. In Islamic society, various forms of the veil have been
adopted from the Arab culture in which Islam arose. The
Quran
has no requirement that women cover their
faces with a veil, or cover their bodies with the full-body
burqua
or
chador
.
History
The first recorded instance of veiling for women is recorded in an
Assyrian
legal text from the 13th century BC,
which restricted its use to noble women and forbade prostitutes and common women
from adopting it.[citation
needed] The
Mycenaean Greek
term a-pu-ko-wo-ko
meaning “craftsman of horse veil” written in
Linear B
syllabic script is also attested since
ca. 1300 BC. In
ancient Greek
the word for veil was “καλύπτρα”
(kaluptra,
Ionic Greek
“καλύπτρη” – kaluptrē, from
the verb “καλύπτω” – kaluptō, “I cover”) and is first attested in the
works of Homer
.
Classical Greek and Hellenistic statues sometimes depict Greek women with
both their head and face covered by a veil. Caroline Galt and Lloyd
Llewellyn-Jones have both argued from such representations and literary
references that it was commonplace for women (at least those of higher status)
in ancient Greece to cover their hair and face in public.
For many centuries, until around 1175,
Anglo-Saxon
and then
Anglo-Norman
women, with the exception of young
unmarried girls, wore veils that entirely covered their hair, and often their
necks up to their chins (see
wimple
). Only in the
Tudor period
(1485), when
hoods
became increasingly popular, did veils of
this type become less common.
For centuries, women have worn sheer veils, but only under certain
circumstances. Sometimes a veil of this type was draped over and pinned to the
bonnet
or hat of a woman in
mourning
, especially at the
funeral
and during the subsequent period of
“high mourning”. They would also have been used, as an alternative to a
mask, as a simple method of hiding the identity of a woman who was
traveling to meet a lover, or doing anything she didn’t want other people to
find out about. More pragmatically, veils were also sometimes worn to protect
the complexion from sun and wind damage (when un-tanned skin was fashionable),
or to keep dust out of a woman’s face, much as the
keffiyeh
is used today.
Religion
In Judaism
,
Christianity
and
Islam
the concept of covering the head is or
was associated with propriety and modesty. Most traditional depictions of the
Virgin Mary
, the mother of
Christ
, show her veiled. During the
Middle Ages
most European and Byzantine married
women covered their hair rather than their face, with a variety of styles of
wimple
, kerchiefs and headscarfs. Veiling,
covering the hair rather than the face, was a common practice with church-going
women until the 1960s, typically using
lace, and a number of very traditional churches retain the custom.
Lace face-veils are still often worn by female relatives at funerals.
In North India, Hindu women may often veil for traditional purposes, it is
often the custom in rural areas to veil in front of male elders. This veil is
called the Ghoonghat
or Laaj. This is to show humility and
respect to those elder to the woman, in particular elder males. The ghoonghat is
customary especially in the westerly states of
Gujarat
and
Rajasthan
.
Although religion stands as a commonly held reason for choosing to veil, it
has also reflects on political regimes and personal conviction, allowing it to
serve as a medium through which personal character can be revealed.
Praying Jewish woman wearing
Tichel
Judaism
After the
destruction of the Temple
in
Jerusalem
, the
synagogues
that were established took the
design of the
Tabernacle
as their plan. The
Ark of the Law
, which contains the
scrolls
of the
Torah
, is covered with an embroidered curtain
or veil called a
parokhet
. (See also
below
regarding the veiling – and unveiling –
of the bride.)
The
Veil of our Lady
is a liturgical feast
celebrating the protection afforded by the
intercessions
of the Virgin Mary.
Traditionally, in Christianity, women were enjoined to cover their heads in
church, just as it was (and still is) customary for men to remove their hat as a
sign of respect. This practice is based on
1 Corinthians 11:4–16
, where
St. Paul
writes:
Any man who prays or prophesies with his head covered brings shame upon
his head. But any woman who prays or prophesies with her head unveiled
brings shame upon her head, for it is one and the same thing as if she had
had her head shaved. For if a woman does not have her head veiled, she may
as well have her hair cut off. But if it is shameful for a woman to have her
hair cut off or her head shaved, then she should wear a veil. A man, on the
other hand, should not cover his head, because he is the image and glory of
God, but woman is the glory of man. For man did not come from woman, but
woman from man; nor was man created for woman, but woman for man; for this
reason a woman should have a sign of authority on her head, because of the
angels. Woman is not independent of man or man of woman in the Lord. For
just as woman came from man, so man is born of woman; but all things are
from God. Judge for yourselves: is it proper for a woman to pray to God with
her head unveiled? Does not nature itself teach you that if a man wears his
hair long it is a disgrace to him, whereas if a woman has long hair it is
her glory, because long hair has been given (her) for a covering? But if
anyone is inclined to be argumentative, we do not have such a custom, nor do
the churches of God (New
American Bible translation)
In many traditional
Eastern Orthodox Churches
, and in some very
conservative
Protestant
churches as well, the custom
continues of women covering their heads in church (or even when praying
privately at home).
In the
Roman Catholic Church
, it was customary in most
places before the 1960s for women to wear a headcovering in the form of a scarf,
cap, veil or hat when entering a church. The practice now continues where it is
seen as a matter of etiquette, courtesy, tradition or fashionable elegance
rather than strictly of canon law.
Traditionalist Catholics
also maintain the
practice.
The wearing of a headcovering was for the first time mandated as a universal
rule for the
Latin Rite
by the
Code of Canon Law of 1917
, which code was
abrogated by the advent of the present (1983) Code of Canon Law. Traditionalist
Catholics majorly still follow it, generally as a matter of ancient custom and
biblically approved aptness, some also supposing St. Paul’s directive in full
force today as an ordinance of its own right, without a canon law rule enforcing
it. The photograph here of Mass in the
Netherlands
in about 1946, two decades before
the changes that followed the
Second Vatican Council
, shows that, even at
that time, when a hat was still considered part of formal dress for both women
and men, wearing a headcovering at Mass was not a universal practice for
Catholic women.
A veil over the hair rather than the face forms part of the headdress of some
religiouss
of
nuns or
religious
sisters; this is why a woman who
becomes a nun is said “to take the veil”. In medieval times married women
normally covered their hair outside the house, and nun’s veils are based on
secular medieval styles, reflecting nuns position as “brides of Christ”. In many
institutes, a white veil is used as the “veil of probation” during
novitiate
, and a dark veil for the “veil of
profession” once religious vows are taken – the color scheme varies with the
color scheme of the habit of the order. A veil of
consecration
, longer and fuller, is used by
some orders for final profession of
solemn vows
.
Nuns
also wear veils
Nuns are the female counterparts of
monks, and many
monastic orders
of women have retained the
veil. Regarding other institutes of religious sisters who are not
cloistered
but who work as teachers, nurses or
in other “active” apostolates outside of a nunnery or monastery, some wear the
veil, while some others have abolished the use of the veil, a few never had a
veil to start with, but used a bonnet-style headdress even a century ago, as in
the case of
St. Elizabeth Ann Seton
.
The fullest versions of the nun’s veil cover the top of the head and flow
down around and over the shoulders. In Western Christianity, it does not wrap
around the neck or face. In those orders that retain one, the starched white
covering about the face neck and shoulders is known as a
wimple
and is a separate garment.
The Catholic Church has revived the ancient practice of allowing women to
profess a solemn vow as
consecrated virgins
. These women are set aside
as sacred persons who belong only to Christ and the service of the church. They
are under the direct care of the local
bishop
, without belonging to a particular order
and receive the veil as a
sign
of
consecration
.
There has also been renewed interest in the last half century in the ancient
practice of women and men dedicating themselves as
anchorites
or
hermits
, and there is a formal process whereby
such persons can seek recognition of their vows by the local bishop – a veil for
these women would also be traditional.
Some Anglican
women’s religious orders also wear a
veil, differing according to the traditions of each order.
In
Eastern Orthodoxy
and in the
Eastern Rites
of the Catholic Church, a veil
called an
epanokamelavkion
is used by both nuns and
monks, in both cases covering completely the
kamilavkion
, a cylindrical hat they both
wear. In
Slavic
practice, when the veil is worn over the
hat, the entire headdress
is referred to as a
klobuk
. Nuns wear an additional veil under
the klobuk, called an
apostolnik
, which is drawn together to
cover the neck and shoulders as well as their heads, leaving the face itself
open.
Islam
A variety of headdresses worn by
Muslim women
and girls in accordance with
hijab
(the principle of dressing modestly)
are sometimes referred to as veils. The principal aim of the Muslim veil is to
hide that which men find sexually attractive. Many of these garments cover the
hair, ears and throat, but do not cover the face. The
khimar
is a type of
headscarf
. The
niqāb
and
burqa
are two kinds of veils that cover
most of the face except for a slit or hole for the eyes.
The Afghan
burqa covers the entire body, obscuring
the face completely, except for a grille or netting over the eyes to allow the
wearer to see. The
boshiya
is a veil that may be worn over a
headscarf; it covers the entire face and is made of a sheer fabric so the wearer
is able to see through it. It has been suggested that
the practice of wearing a veil
– uncommon among
the Arab
tribes prior to the rise of
Islam
– originated in the
Byzantine Empire
, and then spread.
The wearing of head and especially face coverings by Muslim women has raised
political issues in the West; see for example
Hijab controversy in Quebec
,
Islamic dress controversy in Europe
,
Islamic scarf controversy in France
, and
United Kingdom debate over veils
. There is also
high debate of the veil in
Turkey
, a
Muslim majority country
but secular, which
banned the headscarves in universities and government buildings, due to the
türban (a Turkish styled headscarf) being viewed as
a political symbol of Islam
, see
Headscarf controversy in Turkey
.
Frances Perkins
wearing a veil
after the death of U.S. President
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Hats
Veils pinned to hats have survived the changing fashions of the centuries and
are still common today on formal occasions that require women to wear a hat.
However, these veils are generally made of netting or another material not
actually designed to hide the face from view, even if the veil can be pulled
down.
Wedding veils
An occasion on which a Western woman is likely to wear a veil is on her
white wedding
day.
Brides
once used to wear their hair flowing
down their back at their wedding to symbolise their virginity. Veils covering
the hair and face became a symbolic reference to the virginity of the bride
thereafter. Often in modern weddings, the ceremony of removing a face veil after
the wedding to present the groom with a virgin bride is skipped, since many
couples have already entered into conjugal relations prior to their wedding
day – the bride either wears no face veil, or it is lifted before the ceremony
begins, but this is not always the case. Further, if a bride is a virgin, she
often wears the face veil through the ceremony, and then either her father lifts
the veil, presenting the bride to her groom, or the groom lifts the veil to
symbolically consummate the marriage, which will later become literal. Brides
who are virgins may make use of the veil to symbolize and emphasize their status
of purity during their wedding however, and if they do, the lifting of the veil
may be ceremonially recognized as the crowning event of the wedding, when the
beauty of the bride is finally revealed to the groom and the guests. It is not
altogether clear that the wedding veil is a non-religious use of this item,
since weddings have almost always had religious underpinnings, especially in the
West. Veils, however, had been used in the West for weddings long before this.
Roman brides, for instance, wore an intensely flame-colored and fulsome veil,
called the flammeum, apparently intended to protect the bride from
evil spirits
on her wedding day. Later, the
so-called velatio virginum became part of the rite of the
consecration of virgins
, the liturgical rite in
which the church sets aside the virgin as a sacred person who belongs only to
Christ.
In the 19th century, wedding veils came to symbolize the woman’s
virginity
and
modesty
. The tradition of a veiled bride’s face
continues even today wherein, a virgin bride, especially in Christian or Jewish
culture, enters the marriage ritual with a veiled face and head, and remains
fully veiled, both head and face, until the ceremony concludes. After the full
conclusion of the wedding ceremony, either the bride’s father lifts the veil
giving the bride to the groom who then kisses her, or the new groom lifts her
face veil in order to kiss her, which symbolizes the groom’s right to enter into
conjugal relations with his bride.
The lifting of the veil was often a part of ancient wedding ritual,
symbolizing the
groom
taking possession of the wife, either as
lover or as property, or the revelation of the bride by her parents to the groom
for his approval.
A bride wearing a typical wedding veil
In Judaism, the tradition of wearing a veil dates back to biblical times.
According to the Torah in
Genesis 24:65
, Isaac is brought Rebekah to
marry by his father Abraham’s servant. It is important to note that Rebekah did
not veil herself when traveling with her lady attendants and Abraham’s servant
and his men to meet Isaac, but she only did so when Isaac was approaching. Just
before the wedding ceremony the
badeken
or bedeken is held. The groom places
the veil over the bride’s face, and either he or the officiating Rabbi gives her
a blessing. The veil stays on her face until just before the end of the wedding
ceremony – when they are legally married according to Jewish law – then the
groom helps lift the veil from off her face.
The most often cited interpretation for the
badeken
is that, according to
Genesis 29
, when Jacob went to marry Rachel,
his father in law Laban tricked him into marrying Leah, Rachel’s older and
homlier sister. Many say that the veiling ceremony takes place to make sure that
the groom is marrying the right bride. Some say that as the groom places the
veil over his bride, he makes an implicit promise to clothe and protect her.
Finally, by covering her face, the groom recognizes that he his marrying the
bride for her inner beauty; while looks will fade with time, his love will be
everlasting. In some ultra-orthodox traditions the bride wears an opaque veil as
she is escorted down the aisle to meet her groom. This shows her complete
willingness to enter into the marriage and her absolute trust that she is
marrying the right man. In Judaism, a wedding is not considered valid unless the
bride willingly consents to it.
In ancient Judaism
the lifting of the veil took place just
prior to the consummation of the marriage in sexual union. The uncovering or
unveiling that takes place in the
wedding ceremony
is a symbol of what will take
place in the marriage bed. Just as the two become one through their words spoken
in wedding vows, so these words are a sign of the physical oneness that they
will consummate later on. The lifting of the veil is a symbol and an
anticipation of this.
In the
Western world
,
St. Paul’s
words concerning how marriage
symbolizes the union of Christ and His Church may underlie part of the tradition
of veiling in the marriage ceremony.
Dance
Veils are part of the stereotypical images of courtesans and harem women.
Here, the mysterious veil hints at sensuality, an example being the dance of the
seven veils. This is the context into which belly dancing veils fall, with a
large repertoire of ways to wear and hold the veil, framing the body and
accentuating movements. Dancing veils can be as small as a scarf or two, silk
veils mounted on fans, a half circle, three-quarter circle, full circle, a
rectangle up to four feet long, and as large as huge Isis wings with sticks for
extensions. There is also a giant canopy type veil used by a group of dancers.
Veils are made of rayon, silk, polyester, mylar and other fabrics (never wool,
though). Rarely used in Egyptian cabaret style, veil dancing has always played
an important part in the international world of belly dance, extending the range
of the dance and offering lovely transitory imagery.
Courtesans
Conversely, veils are often part of the stereotypical image of the
courtesan
and
harem
woman. Here, rather than the virginity of
the bride’s veil, modesty of the Muslim scarf or the piety of the nun’s
headdress, the mysterious veil hints at sensuality and the unknown. An example
of the veil’s erotic potential is the
dance of the seven veils
.
In this context, the term may refer to a piece of sheer cloth approximately 3
x 1.5 metres, sometimes trimmed with sequins or coins, which is used in various
styles of belly dancing
. A large repertoire of ways to
wear and hold the veil exists, many of which are intended to frame the body from
the perspective of the audience.
Veils for men
Among the
Tuareg
,
Songhai
,
Moors
,
Hausa
. and
Fulani
of
West Africa
, women do not traditionally wear
the veil, while men do. The men’s facial covering originates from the belief
that such action wards off evil spirits, but most probably relates to protection
against the harsh desert sands as well; in any event, it is a firmly established
tradition. Men begin wearing a veil at age 25 which conceals their entire face
excluding their eyes. This veil is never removed, even in front of family
members.
In India
,
Pakistan
,
Bangladesh
, and
Nepal
, men wear a
sehra
on their wedding day. This is a male
veil covering the whole face and neck. The sehra is made from either flowers,
beads, tinsel, dry leaves, or coconuts. The most common sehra is made from fresh
marigolds. The groom wears this throughout the day concealing his face even
during the wedding ceremony. In India today you can see the groom arriving on a
horse with the sehra wrapped around his head.
Etymology
“Veil” came from Latin
vēlum, which also means “sail“.
There are two theories about the origin of the word vēlum:-
- Via the “covering” meaning, from (Indo-European
root
) *wel– = “to cover, to
enclose”.
- Via the “sail” meaning, from Indo-European *weghslom, from root *wegh-
= “way” or “carry in a vehicle”, because it makes the ship move.
L/b>ucius Septimius Severus (or rarely Severus I) (April 11,
145/146-February 4, 211) was a
Roman
general, and
Roman
Emperor
from April 14, 193 to 211. He was born in what is now the
Berber
part of
Rome’s historic
Africa Province
.
Septimius Severus was born and raised at
Leptis
Magna
(modern Berber
, southeast of
Carthage
,
modern Tunisia
).
Severus came from a wealthy, distinguished family of
equestrian
rank. Severus was of
Italian
Roman ancestry on his mother’s side and of
Punic
or
Libyan
-Punic
ancestry on his father’s. Little is known of his father,
Publius Septimius Geta
, who held no major political status but had two
cousins who served as consuls under emperor
Antoninus Pius
. His mother, Fulvia Pia’s family moved from
Italy
to
North
Africa
and was of the
Fulvius
gens,
an ancient and politically influential clan, which was originally of
plebeian
status. His siblings were a younger
Publius Septimius Geta
and Septimia Octavilla. Severus’s maternal cousin was
Praetorian Guard
Gaius Fulvius Plautianus.
In 172, Severus was made a
Senator
by the then emperor
Marcus Aurelius
. In 187 he married secondly
Julia
omna
. In 190 Severus became
consul
, and in
the following year received from the emperor
Commodus
(successor to Marcus Aurelius) the command of the
legions
in Pannonia
.
On the murder of
Pertinax
by
the troops in 193, they proclaimed Severus Emperor at
Carnuntum
,
whereupon he hurried to Italy. The former emperor,
Didius Julianus
, was condemned to death by the Senate and killed, and
Severus took possession of Rome without opposition.
The legions of
a title=”Syria (Roman province)” href=”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province%2529″>
Syria, however, had proclaimed
Pescennius Niger
emperor. At the same time, Severus felt it was reasonable
to offer
Clodius Albinus
, the powerful governor of Britannia who had probably
supported Didius against him, the rank of Caesar, which implied some claim to
succession. With his rearguard safe, he moved to the East and crushed Niger’s
forces at the
Battle of Issus
. The following year was devoted to suppressing Mesopotamia
and other Parthian vassals who had backed Niger. When afterwards Severus
declared openly his son
Caracalla
as successor, Albinus was hailed emperor by his troops and moved to Gallia.
Severus, after a short stay in Rome, moved northwards to meet him. On
February
19
, 197
,
in the
Battle of Lugdunum
, with an army of 100,000 men, mostly composed of
Illyrian
,
Moesian
and
Dacian
legions,
Severus defeated and killed Clodius Albinus, securing his full control over the
Empire.
Emperor
Severus was at heart a
soldier
, and
sought glory through military exploits. In 197 he waged a brief and successful
war against the
Parthian Empire
in retaliation for the support given to Pescennius Niger.
The Parthian capital
Ctesiphon
was sacked by the legions, and the northern half of
Mesopotamia
was restored to Rome.
His relations with the
Roman
Senate
were never good. He was unpopular with them from the outset, having
seized power with the help of the military, and he returned the sentiment.
Severus ordered the execution of dozens of Senators on charges of corruption and
conspiracy
against him, replacing them with his own favorites.
He also disbanded the
Praetorian Guard
and replaced it with one of his own, made up of 50,000
loyal soldiers mainly camped at
Albanum
, near Rome (also probably to grant the emperor a kind of centralized
reserve). During his reign the number of legions was also increased from 25/30
to 33. He also increased the number of auxiliary corps (numerii), many of
these troops coming from the Eastern borders. Additionally the annual wage for a
soldier was raised from 300 to 500
denarii
.
Although his actions turned Rome into a military
dictatorship
, he was popular with the citizens of Rome, having stamped out
the rampant corruption of Commodus’s reign. When he returned from his victory
over the Parthians, he erected the
Arch of Septimius Severus
in Rome.
According to Cassius Dio,
however, after 197 Severus fell heavily under the influence of his Praetorian
Prefect,
Gaius Fulvius Plautianus
, who came to have almost total control of most
branches of the imperial administration. Plautianus’s daughter,
Fulvia Plautilla
, was married to Severus’s son, Caracalla. Plautianus’s
excessive power came to an end in 205, when he was denounced by the Emperor’s
dying brother and killed.
The two following praefecti, including the jurist
Aemilius Papinianus
, received however even larger powers.
Campaigns in Caledonia (Scotland)
Starting from 208 Severus undertook a number of military actions in
Roman
Britain
, reconstructing
Hadrian’s Wall
and campaigning in
Scotland
.
He reached the area of the
Moray
Firth
in his last campaign in Caledonia, as was called Scotland by
the Romans..
In 210 obtained a peace with the
Picts
that lasted
practically until the final withdrawal of the Roman legions from Britain,
before falling severely ill in
Eboracum
(York).
Death
He is famously said to have given the advice to his sons: “Be harmonious,
enrich the soldiers, and scorn all other men” before he died at Eboracum on
February 4
,
211. Upon his death in 211, Severus was
deified
by the Senate and succeeded by his sons,
Caracalla
and
Geta
, who were advised by his wife
Julia
Domna
. The stability Severus provided the Empire was soon gone under their reign.
Accomplishments and Record
Though his military expenditure was costly to the empire, Severus was the
strong, able ruler that Rome needed at the time. He began a tradition of
effective emperors elevated solely by the military. His policy of an expanded
and better-rewarded army was criticized by his contemporary
Dio Cassius
and
Herodianus
: in particular, they pointed out the increasing burden (in the
form of taxes and services) the civilian population had to bear to maintain the
new army.
Severus was also distinguished for his buildings. Apart from the triumphal
arch in the Roman Forum carrying his full name, he also built the
Septizodium
in Rome and enriched greatly his native city of
Leptis
Magna
(including another triumphal arch on the occasion of his visit of
203).
Severus and Christianity
Christians were
persecuted
during the reign of Septimus Severus. Severus allowed the
enforcement of policies already long-established, which meant that Roman
authorities did not intentionally seek out Christians, but when people were
accused of being Christians they could either curse
Jesus
and make an
offering to
Roman gods
, or be executed. Furthermore, wishing to strengthen the peace by
encouraging religious harmony through
syncretism
,
Severus tried to limit the spread of the two quarrelsome groups who refused to
yield to syncretism by outlawing
conversion
to Christianity or
Judaism
.
Individual officials availed themselves of the laws to proceed with rigor
against the Christians. Naturally the emperor, with his strict conception of
law, did not hinder such partial persecution, which took place in
Egypt
and the
Thebaid
, as
well as in
Africa proconsularis
and the East. Christian
martyrs
were
numerous in Alexandria
(cf.
Clement of Alexandria
, Stromata, ii. 20;
Eusebius
, Church History, V., xxvi., VI., i.). No less severe were
the persecutions in Africa, which seem to have begun in 197 or 198 (cf.
Tertullian’s
Ad martyres), and included the Christians known in the
Roman martyrology
as the martyrs of
Madaura
.
Probably in 202 or 203
Felicitas
and
Perpetua
suffered for their faith. Persecution again raged for a short time
under the proconsul
Scapula
in
211, especially in
Numidia
and
Mauritania
.
Later accounts of a Gallic
persecution, especially at
Lyon, are
legendary. In general it may thus be said that the position of the Christians
under Septimius Severus was the same as under the
Antonines
;
but the law of this Emperor at least shows clearly that the
rescript
of
Trajan
had failed to execute its purpose.
The Principate
Julio-Claudian
dynasty
Reign
|
Incumbent
|
Notes
|
16 January 27 BC to 19 August AD 14
|
Augustus
|
|
19 August 14 to 16 March 37
|
Tiberius
|
|
18 March 37 to 24 January 41
|
Caligula
|
Murdered by Praetorian Guard
|
24 January 41 to 13 October 54
|
Claudius
|
Poisoned by his wife Agrippina, mother of Nero
|
13 October 54 to 11 June 68
|
Nero
|
Made a slave kill him
|
Year
of the Four Emperors (Civil War)
Reign
|
Incumbent
|
Notes
|
8 June 68 to 15 January 69
|
Galba
|
Murdered in favour of
Otho
|
15 January 69 to 16 April 69
|
Otho
|
Committed suicide
|
2 January 69 to 20 December 69
|
Vitellius
|
Murdered in favour of
Vespasian
|
Flavian
dynasty
Reign
|
Incumbent
|
Notes
|
1 July 69 to 24 June 79
|
Vespasian
|
|
24 June 79 to 13 September 81
|
Titus
|
Possibly assassinated by Domitian
|
14 September 81 to 18 September 96
|
Domitian
|
Assassinated
|
Nervan-Antonian
dynasty
Main article:
Five Good Emperors
Reign
|
Incumbent
|
Notes
|
18 September 96 to 27 January 98
|
Nerva
|
Proclaimed emperor by senate
|
28 January 98 to 7 August 117
|
Trajan
|
|
11 August 117 to 10 July 138
|
Hadrian
|
|
10 July 138 to 7 March 161
|
Antoninus Pius
|
|
7 March 161 to 17 March 180
|
Marcus Aurelius
|
|
7 March 161 to March 169
|
Lucius Verus
|
Co-emperor with
Marcus Aurelius
|
175
|
Avidius Cassius
|
Usurper; ruled in Egypt and Syria; murdered by his own army
|
177 to 31 December 192
|
Commodus
|
Assassinated
|
Year
of the Five Emperors &
Severan dynasty
Reign
|
Incumbent
|
Notes
|
1 January 193 to 28 March 193
|
Pertinax
|
Proclaimed emperor by senate; murdered by Praetorian Guard
|
28 March 193 to 1 June 193
|
Didius Julianus
|
Proclaimed emperor by Praetorian Guard; executed on orders of the Senate
|
9 April 193 to 4 February 211
|
Septimius Severus
|
Proclaimed emperor by
Pannonian
troops; accepted by
senate
|
193 to 194/195
|
Pescennius Niger
|
Proclaimed emperor by Syrian troops, defeated in battle by
Septimius Severus
|
193/195 to 197
|
Clodius Albinus
|
Proclaimed emperor by British troops, defeated in battle by
Septimius Severus
|
198 to 8 April 217
|
Caracalla
|
Assassinated at the behest of
Macrinus
|
209 to 4 February 211
|
Geta
|
Co-emperor with
Caracalla
; assassinated on orders
of
Caracalla
|
11 April 217 to June 218
|
Macrinus
|
Proclaimed himself emperor; executed on orders of
Elagabalus
|
May 217 to June 218
|
Diadumenian
|
Junior co-emperor under
Macrinus
; executed
|
June 218 to 222
|
Elagabalus
|
Proclaimed emperor by army; murdered by his own troops
|
13 March 222 to ?March 235
|
Alexander Severus
|
Murdered by his own troops
|
Rulers during the
Crisis of the Third Century
Reign
|
Incumbent
|
Notes
|
February/March 235 to March/April 238
|
Maximinus Thrax
|
Proclaimed emperor by the army; murdered by
Praetorian Guard
|
earlyJanuary/March
238 to lateJanuary/April 238
|
Gordian I
|
Proclaimed emperor in Africa; committed suicide after
Gordian II
‘s death
|
earlyJanuary
March 238 to lateJanuary/April 238
|
Gordian II
|
Proclaimed emperor with
Gordian I
, killed in battle
|
earlyFebruary
238 to earlyMay 238
|
Pupienus
|
Proclaimed joint emperor by senate; murdered by
Praetorian Guard
|
earlyFebruary
238 to earlyMay 238
|
Balbinus
|
Proclaimed joint emperor by senate; murdered by
Praetorian Guard
|
May 238 to February 244
|
Gordian III
|
Nephew of
Gordian II
; death unclear,
probably murdered
|
240
|
Sabinianus
|
Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor; defeated in battle
|
February 244 to September/October 249
|
Philip the Arab
|
Proclaimed emperor after death of
Gordian III
; killed in battle by
Decius
|
248
|
Pacatianus
|
Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor; murdered by his own soldiers
|
248 to 249
|
Iotapianus
|
Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor in the east; murdered by his own
soldiers
|
248? or 253?
|
Silbannacus
|
Usurper; details essentially unknown
|
249 to June 251
|
Decius
|
Killed in battle
|
249 to 252
|
Priscus
|
Proclaimed himself emperor in the east in opposition to
Decius
|
250 to 250
|
Licinianus
|
Usurper; proclaimed emperor in Rome; rebellion suppressed
|
early251
to June 251
|
Herennius Etruscus
|
Junior co-emperor under
Decius
; killed in battle
|
251
|
Hostilian
|
Son of
Decius
; died of plague
|
June 251 to August 253
|
Gallus
|
Proclaimed emperor by his troops after Decius’s death; murdered by them
in favour of Aemilianus
|
July 251 to August 253
|
Volusianus
|
Junior co-emperor under
Gallus
; murdered by army
|
August 253 to October 253
|
Aemilian
|
Proclaimed emperor by his troops; murdered by them in favour of
Valerian
|
253 to June 260
|
Valerian
|
Proclaimed emperor by his troops; captured in battle by the
Persians
; died in captivity
|
253 to September 268
|
Gallienus
|
Junior co-emperor under
Valerian
to 260; probably murdered
by his generals
|
260
|
Saloninus
|
Son of
Gallienus
; proclaimed emperor by
army; murdered shortly after by troops of
Postumus
|
June 260 (or 258)
|
Ingenuus
|
Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor after
Valerian
‘s capture; defeated in
battle
|
260
|
Regalianus
|
Usurper; proclaimed emperor after
Ingenuus
‘s defeat; fate unclear
|
260 to 261
|
Macrianus Major
|
Usurper; proclaimed emperor by eastern army; defeated and killed in
battle
|
260 to 261
|
Macrianus Minor
|
Usurper; son of
Macrianus Major
; defeated and
killed in battle
|
260 to 261
|
Quietus
|
Usurper; son of
Macrianus Major
; defeated and
killed in battle
|
261 to 261 or 262
|
Mussius Aemilianus
|
Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor after the defeat of the Macriani;
defeated and executed
|
268 to 268
|
Aureolus
|
Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor after
Gallienus
‘s death; surrendered to
Claudius II Gothicus
; murdered by
Praetorian Guard
|
268 to August 270
|
Claudius II Gothicus
|
Proclaimed emperor by the army
|
August 270 to September 270
|
Quintillus
|
Proclaimed himself emperor; cause of death unclear
|
August 270 to 275
|
Aurelian
|
Proclaimed emperor by army; murdered by the
Praetorian Guard
|
271 to 271
|
Septimius
|
Usurper; proclaimed emperor in
Dalmatia
; killed by his own
soldiers
|
November/December 275 to July 276
|
Tacitus
|
Appointed emperor by the Senate; possibly assassinated
|
July 276 to September 276
|
Florianus
|
Brother of
Tacitus
, proclaimed emperor by the
western army; murdered by his troops
|
July 276 to lateSeptember 282
|
Probus
|
Proclaimed emperor by the eastern army; murdered by his own soldiers in
favour of
Carus
|
280
|
Julius Saturninus
|
Usurper; proclaimed emperor by his troops; then killed by them
|
280
|
Proculus
|
Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor at the request of the people of
Lugdunum
; executed by
Probus
|
280
|
Bonosus
|
Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor; defeated by
Probus
and committed suicide
|
September 282 to July/August 283
|
Carus
|
Proclaimed emperor by Praetorian guard
|
spring 283 to summer 285
|
Carinus
|
Son of Carus; co-emperor with
Numerian
; fate unclear
|
July/August 283 to November 284
|
Numerian
|
Son of Carus; co-emperor with
Carinus
; probably murdered
|
Gallic
Empire
260
to 274
Reign
|
Incumbent
|
Notes
|
260 to 268
|
Postumus
|
Declared himself emperor after
Valerian
‘s death; killed by his
own troops
|
268 to 268
|
Laelianus
|
Proclaimed himself emperor in opposition to Postumus; defeated and
killed by Postumus
|
269 to 269
|
Marius
|
Proclaimed himself emperor after Postumus’s death
|
269 to 271
|
Victorinus
|
Proclaimed emperor after Marius’s death
|
270 to 271
|
Domitianus
|
Proclaimed himself emperor of the
Gallic Empire
|
271 to 274
|
Tetricus I
|
Nominated heir to Victorinus
|
Britannic
Empire
286
to 297
Reign
|
Incumbent
|
Notes
|
286 to 293
|
Carausius
|
Declared himself emperor; assassinated by
Allectus
|
293 to 297
|
Allectus
|
Declared himself emperor after
Carausius
‘s death; defeated by
Constantius Chlorus
|
Dominate
Tetrarchy
and
Constantinian dynasty
Reign
|
Incumbent
|
Notes
|
20 November 284 to 1 May 305
|
Diocletian
|
Declared emperor by the army after Numerian’s death; Abdicated
|
1 April 286 to 1 May 305
|
Maximian
|
Made co-emperor (‘Augustus’) with
Diocletian
; abdicated
|
1 May 305 to 25 July 306
|
Constantius I Chlorus
|
Made junior co-emperor (‘Caesar’) under
Maximian
; became Augustus after
his abdication
|
1 May 305 to May 311
|
Galerius
|
Made junior co-emperor (‘Caesar’) under
Diocletian
; became Augustus after
his abdication
|
August 306 to 16 September 307
|
Severus II
|
Made junior co-emperor (‘Caesar’) under
Constantius Chlorus
; became
Augustus after his death; executed by
Maxentius
|
28 October 306 to 28 October 312
|
Maxentius
|
Son of
Maximian
; proclaimed Augustus by
Praetorian Guard
; defeated in
battle by
Constantine I
|
de jure:
307, de facto 312 to 22 May 337
|
Constantine I
|
Son of
Constantius Chlorus
; proclaimed
Augustus by army
|
308
–309?/311?
|
Domitius Alexander
|
Proclaimed emperor in Africa; defeated in battle by
Maxentius
|
11 November 308 to 18 September 324
|
Licinius
|
Appointed Augustus by
Galerius
; deposed by
Constantine I
and executed
|
1 May 311 to July/August 313
|
Maximinus Daia
|
Made junior co-emperor (‘Caesar’) under
Galerius
; became Augustus after
his death; defeated in battle by Licinius and committed suicide
|
December 316 to 1 March 317
|
Valerius Valens
|
Appointed co-Augustus by
Licinius
; executed by
Licinius
|
July to 18 September 324
|
Martinianus
|
Appointed co-Augustus by
Licinius
; deposed by
Constantine I
and executed
|
337 to 340
|
Constantine II
|
Son of
Constantine I
; co-emperor with his
brothers; killed in battle
|
337 to 361
|
Constantius II
|
Son of
Constantine I
; co-emperor with his
brothers
|
337 to 350
|
Constans I
|
Son of
Constantine I
; co-emperor with his
brothers, killed by
Magnentius
|
January 350 to 11 August 353
|
Magnentius
|
Usurper; proclaimed emperor by the army; defeated by
Constantius II
and committed
suicide
|
c.
350
|
Vetranio
|
Proclaimed himself emperor against
Magnentius
; recognized by
Constantius II
but then deposed
|
c.
350
|
Nepotianus
|
Proclaimed himself emperor against
Magnentius
, defeated and executed
by
Magnentius
|
November 361 to June 363
|
Julian
|
Cousin of
Constantius II
; made Caesar by
Constantius, then proclaimed Augustus by the army; killed in battle
|
363 to 17 February 364
|
Jovian
|
Proclaimed emperor by the army after
Julian
‘s death
|
Valentinian
dynasty
Reign
|
Incumbent
|
Notes
|
26 February 364 to 17 November 375
|
Valentinian I
Valentinian I Coins.htm
|
Proclaimed emperor by the army after
Jovian
‘s death
|
28 March 365 to 9 August 378
|
Valens
|
Made co-emperor in the east by his brother
Valentinian I
; killed in battle
|
September 365 to 27 May 366
|
Procopius
|
Usurper; Proclaimed himself emperor; defeated and executed by
Valens
|
24 August 367 to 383
|
Gratian
Gratian Coins.htm
|
Son of
Valentinian I
; assassinated
|
375 to 392
|
Valentinian II
Valentinian II Coins.htm
|
Son of
Valentinian I
; deposed by
Arbogast
and died in suspicious
circumstances
|
383 to 388
|
Magnus Maximus
Magnus Maximus Coins.htm
|
Usurper; proclaimed emperor by troops; at one time recognized by
Theodosius I
, but then deposed and
executed
|
c.386
to 388
|
Flavius Victor
Flavius Victor Coins.htm
|
Son of Magnus Maximus, executed on orders of
Theodosius I
|
392 to 394
|
Eugenius
Eugenius Coins.htm
|
Usurper; proclaimed emperor by army under
Arbogast
; defeated in battle by
Theodosius I
|
Theodosian
dynasty
Reign
|
Incumbent
|
Notes
|
379 to 17 January 395
|
Theodosius I
Theodosius I Coins.htm
|
Made co-emperor for the east by
Gratian
|
383 to 408
EAST
|
Arcadius
Arcadius Coins.htm
|
Appointed co-emperor with his father
Theodosius I
; sole emperor for the
east from January 395
|
23 January 393 to 15 August 423
WEST
|
Honorius
Honorius Coins.htm
|
Appointed Augustus for the west by his father
Theodosius I
|
407 to 411
WEST
|
Constantine III
Constantine III Coins.htm
|
Usurper; proclaimed emperor in Britain; defeated by
Constantius III
|
409 to 411
WEST
|
Constans II
Constans II Coins.htm
|
Usurper; made emperor by his father
Constantine III
; killed in battle
|
409 and 414 to 415
WEST
|
Priscus Attalus
Priscus Attalus Coins.htm
|
Usurper; twice proclaimed emperor by
Visigoths
under
Alaric
and twice deposed by
Honorius
|
409 to 411
WEST
|
Maximus
Maximus Coins.htm
|
Usurper; proclaimed emperor in Spain; abdicated
|
411 to 413
WEST
|
Jovinus
Jovinus Coins.htm
|
Usurper; proclaimed emperor after
Constantine III
‘s death, executed
by
Honorius
|
412 to 413
WEST
|
Sebastianus
Sebastianus Coins.htm
|
Usurper; appointed co-emperor by
Jovinus
, executed by
Honorius
|
408 to 450
EAST
|
Theodosius II
Theodosius II Coins.htm
|
Son of
Arcadius
|
421 to 421
WEST
|
Constantius III
Constantius III Coins.htm
|
Son-in-law of
Theodosius I
; appointed co-emperor
by
Honorius
|
423 to 425
WEST
|
Joannes
Johannes Coins.htm
|
Proclaimed western emperor, initially undisputed; defeated and executed
by
Theodosius II
in favour of
Valentinian III
|
425 to 16 March 455
WEST
|
Valentinian III
Valentinian III Coins.htm
|
Son of
Constantius III
; appointed emperor
by
Theodosius II
; assassinated
|
Western
Roman Empire
Reign
|
Incumbent
|
Notes
|
17 March 455 to 31 May 455
|
Petronius Maximus
Petronius Maximus Coins.htm
|
Proclaimed himself emperor after
Valentinian III
‘s death; murdered
|
June 455 to 17 October 456
|
Avitus
Avitus Coins.htm
|
Proclaimed emperor by the
Visigoth
king
Theoderic II
; deposed by
Ricimer
|
457 to 2 August 461
|
Majorian
Majorian Coins.htm
|
Appointed by
Ricimer
; deposed and executed by
Ricimer
|
461 to 465
|
Libius Severus
Libius Severus Coins.htm
|
Appointed by
Ricimer
; deposed and executed by
Ricimer
|
12 April 467 to 11 July 472
|
Anthemius
Anthemius Coins.htm
|
Appointed by
Ricimer
; deposed and executed by
Ricimer
|
July 472 to 2 November 472
|
Olybrius
Olybrius Coins.htm
|
Appointed by
Ricimer
|
5 March 473 to June 474
|
Glycerius
Glycerius Coins.htm
|
Appointed by
Gundobad
; deposed by
Julius Nepos
|
June 474 to 25 April 480
|
Julius Nepos
Julius Nepos Coins.htm
|
Appointed by eastern emperor
Leo I
; deposed in Italy by
Orestes
in 475; continued to be
recognised as lawful emperor in Gaul and Dalmatia until his murder in
480
|
31 October 475 to 4 September 476
|
Romulus Augustus
(Romulus
Augustulus)
Romulus Augustus Coins.htm
|
Son of
Orestes
; deposed by
Odoacer
; fate unknown
|
Further information:
Barbarian kings of Italy
Eastern
Roman Empire
-
For
the rulers of the Eastern Roman Empire (also known as the
Byzantine Empire
) after
Theodosius II
, see:
List of Byzantine Emperors
Theodosian dynasty (395–457)
See also:
Theodosian dynasty
Name |
Reign |
Comments |
|
Theodosius I “the Great”
(Θεοδόσιος Α’ ο Μέγας, Flavius Theodosius)Theodosius
I Coins.htm |
19 January 379 –
17 January 395 |
Born on 11 January 347. Aristocrat and military leader,
brother-in-law of Gratian, who appointed him as emperor of the East.
From 392 until his death sole Roman emperor |
|
Arcadius
(Αρκάδιος, Flavius Arcadius)Arcadius
Coins.htm |
17 January 395 –
1 May 408 |
Born in 377/378, the eldest son of Theodosius I.
Succeeded upon the death of his father |
|
Theodosius II
(Θεοδόσιος Β’, Flavius Theodosius)
Theodosius II Coins.htm |
1 May 408 –
28 July 450 |
Born on 10 April 401, the only son of Arcadius.
Succeeded upon the death of his father. As a minor, the praetorian
prefect
Anthemius
was regent in 408–414. He
died in a riding accident |
|
Marcian
(Μαρκιανός, Flavius Valerius Marcianus)
Marcian Coins.htm
|
450 – January 457 |
Born in 396. A soldier and
politician, he became emperor after being wed by the Augusta
Pulcheria
, Theodosius II’s sister,
following the latter’s death. Died of
gangrene
|
Leonid
dynasty (457–518)
See also:
House of Leo
Name |
Reign |
Comments |
|
Leo I “the Thracian”
(Λέων Α’ ο Θράξ, Flavius Valerius Leo)
Leo I Coins.htm
|
7 February 457 –
18 January 474 |
Born in
Dacia
in 401. A common soldier, he was
chosen by Aspar
, commander-in-chief of the army.
Died of dysentery |
|
Leo II
(Λέων Β’, Flavius Leo)
Leo II
Coins.htm
|
18 January –
17 November 474 |
Born in 467, the grandson of Leo I. Succeeded upon the
death of Leo I. Died of an unknown disease, possibly poisoned |
|
Zeno
(Ζήνων, Flavius Zeno)
Zeno Coins.htm
|
17 November 474 –
9 April 491 |
Born c.425 at
Zenonopolis
,
Isauria
, originally named
Tarasicodissa. Son-in-law of Leo I, he was bypassed in the succession
because of his barbarian origin. Named co-emperor by his son on 9
February 474, he succeeded upon the death of Leo II. Deposed by
Basiliscus, brother-in-law of Leo, he fled to his native country and
regained the throne in August 476. |
|
Basiliscus
(Βασιλίσκος, Flavius Basiliscus)
Basiliscus Coins.htm
|
9 January 475 –
August 476 |
General and brother-in-law of Leo I, he seized power
from Zeno but was again deposed by him. Died in 476/477 |
|
Anastasius I
(Αναστάσιος Α’, Flavius Anastasius)
BYZANTINE – Anastasius
Coins.htm
|
11 April 491 –
9 July 518 |
Born c. 430 at
Dyrrhachium
,
Epirus nova
. A palace official (silentiarius)
and son-in-law of Leo I, he was chosen as emperor by empress-dowager
Ariadne
|
Justinian Dynasty
Main article:
Justinian Dynasty
Portrait |
Name |
Born |
Reigned |
Succession |
Died |
|
Justin I
FLAVIVS IVSTINVS AVGVSTVS |
c. 450 AD,
Naissus
|
July 9, 518 AD – August 1, 527 AD |
Commander of the palace guard under
Anastasius I)
; elected as emperor with
support of army |
August 1, 527 AD
Natural causes |
|
Justinian I
FLAVIVS PETRVS SABBATIVS IVSTINIANVS AVGVSTVS |
c. 482 AD,
Tauresium
,
Dardania
|
August 1, 527 AD – 13/14 November 565 AD |
Nephew and nominated heir of
Justin I
|
13/14 November 565 AD
Natural causes |
|
Justin II
FLAVIVS IVSTINIVS IVNIOR AVGVSTVS |
c. 520 AD, ? |
13/14 November 565 AD – 578 AD |
Nephew of
Justinian I
|
578 AD
Became insane;
Tiberius II Constantine
ruled as regent
from December 574 and became emperor on Justin’s death in 578 |
Roman Late Monogram Coins.htm
Roman AE4 Coins.htm
See also
-
Roman Republic
-
Roman Empire
-
Western Roman Empire
-
Byzantine Empire
-
Britannic Empire
-
Gallic Empire
-
List of Roman usurpers
-
Roman usurper
-
Thirty Tyrants (Roman)
|