Syracuse in Sicily 212BC Ancient Greek Coin Zeus Nike Victory Horse i28112

In the
ancient Greek

religion
, Zeus

zews


zooss
;
Ancient Greek
: Ζεύς;
Modern
Greek
: Δίας, Dias) was the “Father of Gods and men” (πατὴρ
ἀνδρῶν τε θεῶν τε) who ruled the Olympians of
Mount
Olympus
as a father ruled the family. He was the
god of sky

and
thunder
in
Greek mythology
. His
Roman
counterpart is
Jupiter
and
Etruscan
counterpart is
Tinia
.

Zeus was the child of
Cronus
and
Rhea
, and the youngest of his siblings. In most
traditions he was married to

Hera, although, at the oracle of
Dodona
, his consort was
Dione
: according to the
Iliad
, he is the father of
Aphrodite
by Dione.^[2]
He is known for his erotic escapades. These resulted in many godly and heroic
offspring, including
Athena
,
Apollo
and
Artemis
,
Hermes
,
Persephone
(by
Demeter
),
Dionysus
,
Perseus
,
Heracles
,
Helen of Troy
,
Minos
, and the

Muses (by
Mnemosyne
); by Hera, he is usually said to have
fathered
Ares
,
Hebe
and
a title=”Hephaestus” href=”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hephaestus” style=”text-decoration: none”>
Hephaestus.^[5]

As
Walter Burkert
points out in his book, Greek
Religion, “Even the gods who are not his natural children address him as
Father, and all the gods rise in his presence.”^[6]
For the Greeks, he was the
King of the Gods
, who oversaw the universe. As
Pausanias
observed, “That Zeus is king in
heaven is a saying common to all men”.^[7]
In Hesiod’s
Theogony
Zeus assigns the various gods
their roles. In the
Homeric Hymns
he is referred to as the
chieftain of the gods.

His symbols are the
thunderbolt
,
eagle
,
bull
, and
oak.
In addition to his Indo-European inheritance, the classical “cloud-gatherer”
also derives certain iconographic traits from the cultures of the
Ancient Near East
, such as the
scepter
. Zeus is frequently depicted by Greek
artists in one of two poses: standing, striding forward, with a thunderbolt
leveled in his raised right hand, or seated in majesty.

Etymology

In Greek, the god’s name is Ζεύς
Zeús

/zdeús/ or

/dzeús/ (Modern Greek

/ˈzefs/) in the
nominative case
and
Διός Diós in the
genitive case
. The earliest forms of the name
are the
Mycenaean Greek
di-we and di-wo,
written in
Linear b
syllabic script.^[8]
With the apparent interchangeability of “z” and “d”, Zeus can also be

Deus.

Zeus, poetically referred to by the
vocative
Zeu pater (“O, father Zeus”),
is a continuation of *Di̯ēus,
the
Proto-Indo-European
god of the daytime sky,
also called *Dyeus
ph₂tēr (“Sky Father”).^[9]
The god is known under this name in
Sanskrit
(compare
Dyaus/Dyaus Pita
),
Latin
(compare
Jupiter
, from Iuppiter, deriving
from the
Proto-Indo-European
vocative *dyeu-ph₂tēr^[10]),
deriving from the basic form *dyeu– (“to shine”, and in its many
derivatives, “sky, heaven, god”).^[9]
And in
Germanic mythology
(compare *Tīwaz
>
Old High German language
Ziu,
Old Norse

Týr
), together with Latin deus,
dīvus and Dis (a variation of dīves^[11]),
from the related noun *deiwos.^[11]
To the Greeks and Romans, the god of the sky was also the supreme god. Zeus is
the only deity in the Olympic
pantheon
whose name has such a transparent
Indo-European etymology.

In
Greek mythology
,

Nike was a
goddess
who personified
victory
, also known as the Winged Goddess of
Victory. The Roman equivalent was
Victoria
. Depending upon the time of various
myths, she was described as the daughter of
Pallas
(Titan) and

Styx (Water) and the sister of
Kratos
(Strength),
Bia
(Force), and
Zelus
(Zeal). Nike and her siblings were close
companions of Zeus
, the dominant deity of the
Greek pantheon
. According to classical (later)
myth, Styx brought them to Zeus when

the
god was assembling allies for the
Titan War
against the older deities. Nike
assumed the role of the divine
charioteer
, a role in which she often is
portrayed in Classical Greek art. Nike flew around battlefields rewarding the
victors with glory and fame.

Nike is seen with wings in most statues and paintings. Most other winged
deities in the Greek pantheon had shed their wings by Classical times. Nike is
the goddess of strength, speed, and victory. Nike was a very close acquaintance
of Athena
, and is thought to have stood in
Athena’s outstretched hand in the statue of Athena located in the Parthenon.
Nike is one of the most commonly portrayed figures on Greek coins.

Names stemming from Nike include amongst others:
Nicholas
, Nicola, Nick, Nikolai, Nils, Klaas,
Nicole, Ike, Niki, Nikita, Nika, Niketas, and Nico.

Syracuse pronounced,

Sicilian

: Sarausa,

Ancient Greek

: Συράκουσαι –

transliterated: Syrakousai) is a historic

city in

southern Italy

, the

capital

of the

province of Syracuse

. The city is famous for its rich Greek history,

culture
,

amphitheatres

,

architecture

and association to

Archimedes
,

playing an important role in ancient times as one of the top powers of the

Mediterranean

world; it is over 2,700 years old. Syracuse is located in the

south-east corner of the island of

Sicily
, right

by the Gulf of Syracuse next to the

Ionian Sea
.

The city was founded by

Ancient Greek

Corinthians

and became a very powerful

city-state
.

Syracuse was allied with

Sparta
and

Corinth
,

exerting influence over the entire

Magna Grecia

area of which it was the most important city. Once

described by Cicero

as “the greatest Greek city and the most beautiful of them all”, it later became

part of the

Roman Republic

and

Byzantine Empire

. After this

Palermo

overtook it in importance, as the capital of the

Kingdom of Sicily

. Eventually the kingdom would be united with the

Kingdom of Naples

to form the

Two Sicilies

until the

Italian unification

of 1860.

In the modern day, the city is listed by

UNESCO
as a

World Heritage Site

along with the

Necropolis of Pantalica

. In the central area, the city itself has a

population of around 125,000 people. The inhabitants are known as Siracusans,

and the local language spoken by its inhabitants is the

Sicilian language

. Syracuse is mentioned in the

Bible
in the

Acts of the Apostles

book at 28:12 as

Paul

stayed there.^[2]

The patron saint

of the city is

Saint Lucy
;

she was born in Syracuse and her feast day,

Saint Lucy’s Day

, is celebrated on 13 December.

Greek period

Syracuse and its surrounding area have been inhabited since ancient times, as

shown by the findings in the villages of Stentinello, Ognina, Plemmirio,

Matrensa, Cozzo Pantano and Thapsos, which already had a relationship

with

Mycenaean Greece

.

Syracuse was founded in 734 or 733 BC by Greek settlers from

Corinth

and Tenea
,

led by the oecist (colonizer)

Archias

, who called it Sirako, referring to a nearby salt marsh. The

nucleus of the ancient city was the small island of Ortygia. The settlers

found the land fertile and the native tribes to be reasonably well-disposed to

their presence. The city grew and prospered, and for some time stood as the most

powerful Greek city anywhere in the

Mediterranean

. Colonies were founded at

Akrai

(664 BC),

Kasmenai

(643 BC),

Akrillai

(VII century BC), Helorus

(VII century BC) and

Kamarina

(598 BC). The descendants of the first colonist, called Gamoroi, held the

power until they were expelled by the Killichiroi, the lower class of the

city. The former, however, returned to power in 485 BC, thanks to the help of

Gelo, ruler of

Gela. Gelo himself

became the despot of the city, and moved many inhabitants of Gela, Kamarina and

Megera to Syracuse, building the new quarters of

Tyche
and

Neapolis

outside the walls. His program of new constructions included a new

theater, designed by

Damocopos

, which gave the city a flourishing cultural life: this in turn

attracted personalities as

Aeschylus
,

Ario of

Metimma

, Eumelos of

Corinth
and

Sappho
, who had

been exiled here from

Mytilene
.

The enlarged power of Syracuse made unavoidable the clash against the

Carthaginians

, who ruled western Sicily. In the

Battle of Himera

, Gelo, who had allied with Theron of

Agrigento
,

decisively defeated the African force led by

Hamilcar
. A

temple
,

entitled to Athena

(on the site of the today’s Cathedral), was erected in the city to commemorate

the event

Gelon was succedeed by his brother

Hiero

, who

fought

against the

Etruscans

at Cumae

in 474 BC. His rule was eulogized by poets like

Simonides of Ceos

,

Bacchylides

and Pindar

, who visited his court. A democratic regime was introduced by

Thrasybulos

(467 BC). The city continued to expand in

Sicily
,

fighting against the rebellious

Siculi

, and on the

Tyrrhenian Sea

, making expeditions up to

Corsica
and

Elba. In the late

5th century BC, Syracuse found itself at war with

Athens
, which

sought more resources to fight the

Peloponnesian War

. The Syracusans enlisted the aid of a general from

Sparta
, Athens’

foe in the war, to defeat the Athenians, destroy their ships, and leave them to

starve on the island (see

Sicilian Expedition

). In 401 BC, Syracuse contributed a force of 3,000

hoplites

and a general to

Cyrus the Younger

‘s

Army of the Ten Thousand

.

Then in the early 4th century BC, the

tyrant

Dionysius the Elder

was again at war against

Carthage

and, although losing Gela and Camarina, kept that power from capturing the whole

of Sicily. After the end of the conflict Dionysius built a massive fortress on

the Ortygia

island of the city and 22 km-long walls around all of Syracuse. Another period

of expansion saw the destruction of

Naxos

, Catania

and Lentini

, then Syracuse entered again in war against Carthage (397 BC). After

various changes of fortune, the Carthaginians managed to besiege Syracuse

itself, but were eventually pushed back by a pestilence. A treaty in 392 BC

allowed Syracuse to enlarge further its possessions, founding the cities of

Adrano, Ancona
,

Adria
, Tindari

and Tauromenos, and conquering

Reggio Calabria

on the continent. Apart from his battle deeds, Dionysius was

famous as a patron of art, and

Plato
himself

visited Syracuse several times.

His successor was

Dionysius the Younger

, who was however expelled by

Dion

in 356 BC. But the latter’s despotic rule led in turn to his expulsion,

and Dionysius reclaimed his throne in 347 BC. A democratic government was

installed by Timoleon

in 345 BC. The long series of internal struggles had weakened

Syracuse’s power on the island, and Timoleon tried to remedy this, defeating the

Carthaginians in 339 BC near the

Krimisos

river. But the struggle among the city’s parties restarted after

his death and ended with the rise of another tyrant,

Agathocles
,

who seized power with a coup in 317 BC. He resumed the war against Carthage,

with alternate fortunes. He however scored a moral success, bringing the war to

the Carthaginians’ native African soil, inflicting heavy losses to the enemy.

The war ended with another treaty of peace which did not prevent the

Carthaginians interfering in the politics of Syracuse after the death of

Agathocles (289 BC). The citizens called

Pyrrhus of Epirus

for help. After a brief period under the rule of Epirus,

Hiero II

seized power in 275 BC.

Hiero inaugurated a period of 50 years of peace and prosperity, in which

Syracause became one of the most renowned capitals of Antiquity. He issued the

so-called Lex Hieronica, which was later adopted by the Romans for their

administration of Sicily; he also had the theater enlarged and a new immense

altar
, the “Hiero’s

Ara”, built. Under his rule lived the most famous Syracusan, the

natural philosopher

Archimedes
.

Among his many inventions were various military engines including the

claw of Archimedes

, later used to resist the

Roman

siege of 214 BC–212 BC. Literary figures included

Theocritus

and others.

Hiero’s successor, the young

Hieronymus

(ruled from 215 BC), broke the alliance with the Romans after

their defeat at the

Battle of Cannae

and accepted

Carthage
‘s

support. The Romans, led by consul

Marcus Claudius Marcellus

,

besieged the city

in 214 BC. The city held out for three years, but fell in

212 BC. It is believed to have fallen due to a peace party opening a small door

in the wall to negotiate a peace, but the Romans charged through the door and

took the city, killing Archimedes in the process.

 From

Roman domination to the Middle Ages

Though declining slowly by the years, Syracuse maintained the status of

capital of the Roman government of Sicily and seat of the

praetor
. It

remained an important port for the trades between the Eastern and the Western

parts of the Empire.

Christianity

spread in the city through the efforts of

Paul of Tarsus

and Saint Marziano, the first bishop of the city, who made it

one of the main centres of

proselytism

in the West. In the age of the persecutions massive

catacombs

were carved, whose size is second only to those of Rome.

After a period of

Vandal

rule, Syracuse and the island was recovered by

Belisarius

for the

Byzantine Empire

(31 December 535). From 663 to 668 Syracuse was the seat of

Emperor Constans II

, as well as metropolis of the whole Sicilian Church.

Another siege in 878, resulted in the city coming under two centuries of

Muslim
rule. The

capital was moved from Syracuse to

Palermo
. The

Cathedral was converted into a

mosque
and the

quarter on the Ortygia island was gradually rebuilt along Islamic styles. The

city, nevertheless, maintained important trade relationships, and housed a

relatively flourishing cultural and artistic life: several Arab poets, including

Ibn Hamdis
,

the most important Sicilian poet of the 12th century, flourished in the city.

In 1038, the Byzantine general

George Maniaces

reconquered the city, sending the relics of St. Lucy to

Constantinople

. The eponymous castle on the cape of Ortygia bears his name,

although it was built under the

Hohenstaufen

rule. In 1085 the

Normans

entered Syracuse, one of the last

Arab

strongholds, after a summer-long siege by

Roger I of Sicily

and his son

Jordan of Hauteville

, who was given the city as count. New quarters were

built, and the cathedral was restored, as well as other churches.

In 1194

Henry VI

of Swabia

occupied Syracuse. After a short period of

Genoese

rule (1205–1220), which favoured a rise of trades, Syracuse was

conquered back by emperor

Frederick II

. He began the construction of the

Castello Maniace

, the Bishops’ Palace and the Bellomo Palace. Frederick’s

death brought a period of unrest and feudal anarchy. In the struggle between the

Anjou
and

Aragonese

monarchies, Syracuse sided with the Aragonese and defeated the

Anjou in 1298, receiving from the Spanish sovereigns great privileges in reward.

The pre-eminence of baronal families is also shown by the construction of the

palaces of Abela
,

Chiaramonte

, Nava
,

Montalto
.