Syracuse in Sicily 288BC Hiketas Ancient Greek Coin Zeus Hellanios Eagle i45650

In the
ancient Greek

religion, Zeus was the
“Father of Gods and men” (πατὴρ ἀνδρῶν τε θεῶν
τε)
who ruled the Olympians of
Mount Olympus

as a father ruled the family. He was the
god of sky

and
thunder

in
Greek mythology
.
His
Roman

counterpart is
Jupiter

and
Etruscan

counterpart is Tinia
.

Zeus was the child of
Cronus

and
Rhea
,
and the youngest of his siblings. In most traditions he was married to

Hera, although, at the
oracle of Dodona
,
his consort was
Dione
:
according to the Iliad
,
he is the father of
Aphrodite

by Dione. He is known for his erotic escapades. These resulted in many godly and
heroic offspring, including
Athena
,
Apollo

and Artemis
,
Hermes
,
Persephone

(by Demeter
),
Dionysus
,
Perseus
,
Heracles
,
Helen of Troy
,
Minos
,
and the Muses

(by Mnemosyne
);
by Hera, he is usually said to have fathered

Ares,
Hebe

and Hephaestus
.

As
Walter Burkert

points out in his book, Greek Religion, “Even the gods who are not his
natural children address him as Father, and all the gods rise in his presence.”
For the Greeks, he was the
King of the Gods
,
who oversaw the universe. As
Pausanias

observed, “That Zeus is king in heaven is a saying common to all men”. In
Hesiod’s Theogony

Zeus assigns the various gods their roles. In the Homeric Hymns he is
referred to as the chieftain of the gods.

His symbols are the
thunderbolt
,
eagle
,
bull
,
and oak
.
In addition to his Indo-European inheritance, the classical “cloud-gatherer”
also derives certain iconographic traits from the cultures of the
Ancient Near East
,
such as the
scepter
.
Zeus is frequently depicted by Greek artists in one of two poses: standing,
striding forward, with a thunderbolt leveled in his raised right hand, or seated
in majesty.

Hicetas (Greek:
Ἱκέτας or
Ἱκέτης) was tyrant of
Syracuse
, during the interval between the reign
of Agathocles
and that of
Pyrrhus
. After the death of Agathocles (289
BCE), his supposed assassin,
Maenon
, put to death Archagathus, the grandson
of the tyrant; and assuming the command of the army with which the latter was
besieging
Aetna
, directed his arms against Syracuse.
Hereupon Hicetas was sent against him by the Syracusans, with a considerable
army: but after the war had continued for some time, without any decisive
result, Maenon, by calling in the aid of the
Carthaginians
, obtained the superiority, and
the Syracusans were compelled to conclude an ignominious peace. Soon after
ensued the revolution which led to the expulsion of the
Campanian
mercenaries, afterwards known as the
Mamertines
: and it must have been shortly after
this that Hicetas established himself in the supreme power, as we are told by
Diodorus
that he ruled nine years. The only
events of his government that are recorded are a war with
Phintias
, tyrant of Agrigentum (modern
Agrigento
), in which he obtained a considerable
victory, and one with the Carthaginians, by whom he was defeated at the river
Terias
. He was at length expelled from Syracuse
by
Thynion
, an event which took place not long
before the arrival of Pyrrhus in
Sicily
, and must therefore be referred either
to 279 BCE
or
278 BCE
, either of which dates is consistent
enough with the period of nine years allotted to his reign by Diodorus. (Diod.
Exc. Hoesch. xxi. 12, 13, xxii. 2, 6.)

There are extant gold coins struck at Syracuse bearing the name of Hicetas:
from the inscription on these ΕΠΙ ΙΚΕΤΑ,
it is clear that he never assumed the title of “king”, like his contemporary
Phintias, at Agrigentum.

Syracuse  is a historic

city in

southern Italy

, the

capital

of the

province of Syracuse

. The city is famous for its rich Greek history,

culture
,

amphitheatres

,

architecture

and association to

Archimedes
,

playing an important role in ancient times as one of the top powers of the

Mediterranean

world; it is over 2,700 years old. Syracuse is located in the

south-east corner of the island of

Sicily
, right

by the Gulf of Syracuse next to the

Ionian Sea
.

The city was founded by

Ancient Greek

Corinthians

and became a very powerful

city-state
.

Syracuse was allied with

Sparta
and

Corinth
,

exerting influence over the entire

Magna Grecia

area of which it was the most important city. Once

described by Cicero

as “the greatest Greek city and the most beautiful of them all”, it later became

part of the

Roman Republic

and

Byzantine Empire

. After this

Palermo

overtook it in importance, as the capital of the

Kingdom of Sicily

. Eventually the kingdom would be united with the

Kingdom of Naples

to form the

Two Sicilies

until the

Italian unification

of 1860.

In the modern day, the city is listed by

UNESCO
as a

World Heritage Site

along with the

Necropolis of Pantalica

. In the central area, the city itself has a

population of around 125,000 people. The inhabitants are known as Siracusans,

and the local language spoken by its inhabitants is the

Sicilian language

. Syracuse is mentioned in the

Bible
in the

Acts of the Apostles

book at 28:12 as

Paul

stayed there.^[2]

The patron saint

of the city is

Saint Lucy
;

she was born in Syracuse and her feast day,

Saint Lucy’s Day

, is celebrated on 13 December.

Greek period

Syracuse and its surrounding area have been inhabited since ancient times, as

shown by the findings in the villages of Stentinello, Ognina, Plemmirio,

Matrensa, Cozzo Pantano and Thapsos, which already had a relationship

with

Mycenaean Greece

.

Syracuse was founded in 734 or 733 BC by Greek settlers from

Corinth

and Tenea
,

led by the oecist (colonizer)

Archias

, who called it Sirako, referring to a nearby salt marsh. The

nucleus of the ancient city was the small island of Ortygia. The settlers

found the land fertile and the native tribes to be reasonably well-disposed to

their presence. The city grew and prospered, and for some time stood as the most

powerful Greek city anywhere in the

Mediterranean

. Colonies were founded at

Akrai

(664 BC),

Kasmenai

(643 BC),

Akrillai

(VII century BC), Helorus

(VII century BC) and

Kamarina

(598 BC). The descendants of the first colonist, called Gamoroi, held the

power until they were expelled by the Killichiroi, the lower class of the

city. The former, however, returned to power in 485 BC, thanks to the help of

Gelo, ruler of

Gela. Gelo himself

became the despot of the city, and moved many inhabitants of Gela, Kamarina and

Megera to Syracuse, building the new quarters of

Tyche
and

Neapolis

outside the walls. His program of new constructions included a new

theater, designed by

Damocopos

, which gave the city a flourishing cultural life: this in turn

attracted personalities as

Aeschylus
,

Ario of

Metimma

, Eumelos of

Corinth
and

Sappho
, who had

been exiled here from

Mytilene
.

The enlarged power of Syracuse made unavoidable the clash against the

Carthaginians

, who ruled western Sicily. In the

Battle of Himera

, Gelo, who had allied with Theron of

Agrigento
,

decisively defeated the African force led by

Hamilcar
. A

temple
,

entitled to Athena

(on the site of the today’s Cathedral), was erected in the city to commemorate

the event

Gelon was succedeed by his brother

Hiero

, who

fought

against the

Etruscans

at Cumae

in 474 BC. His rule was eulogized by poets like

Simonides of Ceos

,

Bacchylides

and Pindar

, who visited his court. A democratic regime was introduced by

Thrasybulos

(467 BC). The city continued to expand in

Sicily
,

fighting against the rebellious

Siculi

, and on the

Tyrrhenian Sea

, making expeditions up to

Corsica
and

Elba. In the late

5th century BC, Syracuse found itself at war with

Athens
, which

sought more resources to fight the

Peloponnesian War

. The Syracusans enlisted the aid of a general from

Sparta
, Athens’

foe in the war, to defeat the Athenians, destroy their ships, and leave them to

starve on the island (see

Sicilian Expedition

). In 401 BC, Syracuse contributed a force of 3,000

hoplites

and a general to

Cyrus the Younger

‘s

Army of the Ten Thousand

.

Then in the early 4th century BC, the

tyrant

Dionysius the Elder

was again at war against

Carthage

and, although losing Gela and Camarina, kept that power from capturing the whole

of Sicily. After the end of the conflict Dionysius built a massive fortress on

the Ortygia

island of the city and 22 km-long walls around all of Syracuse. Another period

of expansion saw the destruction of

Naxos

, Catania

and Lentini

, then Syracuse entered again in war against Carthage (397 BC). After

various changes of fortune, the Carthaginians managed to besiege Syracuse

itself, but were eventually pushed back by a pestilence. A treaty in 392 BC

allowed Syracuse to enlarge further its possessions, founding the cities of

Adrano, Ancona
,

Adria
, Tindari

and Tauromenos, and conquering

Reggio Calabria

on the continent. Apart from his battle deeds, Dionysius was

famous as a patron of art, and

Plato
himself

visited Syracuse several times.

His successor was

Dionysius the Younger

, who was however expelled by

Dion

in 356 BC. But the latter’s despotic rule led in turn to his expulsion,

and Dionysius reclaimed his throne in 347 BC. A democratic government was

installed by Timoleon

in 345 BC. The long series of internal struggles had weakened

Syracuse’s power on the island, and Timoleon tried to remedy this, defeating the

Carthaginians in 339 BC near the

Krimisos

river. But the struggle among the city’s parties restarted after

his death and ended with the rise of another tyrant,

Agathocles
,

who seized power with a coup in 317 BC. He resumed the war against Carthage,

with alternate fortunes. He however scored a moral success, bringing the war to

the Carthaginians’ native African soil, inflicting heavy losses to the enemy.

The war ended with another treaty of peace which did not prevent the

Carthaginians interfering in the politics of Syracuse after the death of

Agathocles (289 BC). The citizens called

Pyrrhus of Epirus

for help. After a brief period under the rule of Epirus,

Hiero II

seized power in 275 BC.

Hiero inaugurated a period of 50 years of peace and prosperity, in which

Syracause became one of the most renowned capitals of Antiquity. He issued the

so-called Lex Hieronica, which was later adopted by the Romans for their

administration of Sicily; he also had the theater enlarged and a new immense

altar
, the “Hiero’s

Ara”, built. Under his rule lived the most famous Syracusan, the

natural philosopher

Archimedes
.

Among his many inventions were various military engines including the

claw of Archimedes

, later used to resist the

Roman

siege of 214 BC–212 BC. Literary figures included

Theocritus

and others.

Hiero’s successor, the young

Hieronymus

(ruled from 215 BC), broke the alliance with the Romans after

their defeat at the

Battle of Cannae

and accepted

Carthage
‘s

support. The Romans, led by consul

Marcus Claudius Marcellus

,

besieged the city

in 214 BC. The city held out for three years, but fell in

212 BC. It is believed to have fallen due to a peace party opening a small door

in the wall to negotiate a peace, but the Romans charged through the door and

took the city, killing Archimedes in the process.

 From

Roman domination to the Middle Ages

Though declining slowly by the years, Syracuse maintained the status of

capital of the Roman government of Sicily and seat of the

praetor
. It

remained an important port for the trades between the Eastern and the Western

parts of the Empire.

Christianity

spread in the city through the efforts of

Paul of Tarsus

and Saint Marziano, the first bishop of the city, who made it

one of the main centres of

proselytism

in the West. In the age of the persecutions massive

catacombs

were carved, whose size is second only to those of Rome.

After a period of

Vandal

rule, Syracuse and the island was recovered by

Belisarius

for the

Byzantine Empire

(31 December 535). From 663 to 668 Syracuse was the seat of

Emperor Constans II

, as well as metropolis of the whole Sicilian Church.

Another siege in 878, resulted in the city coming under two centuries of

Muslim
rule. The

capital was moved from Syracuse to

Palermo
. The

Cathedral was converted into a

mosque
and the

quarter on the Ortygia island was gradually rebuilt along Islamic styles. The

city, nevertheless, maintained important trade relationships, and housed a

relatively flourishing cultural and artistic life: several Arab poets, including

Ibn Hamdis
,

the most important Sicilian poet of the 12th century, flourished in the city.

In 1038, the Byzantine general

George Maniaces

reconquered the city, sending the relics of St. Lucy to

Constantinople

. The eponymous castle on the cape of Ortygia bears his name,

although it was built under the

Hohenstaufen

rule. In 1085 the

Normans

entered Syracuse, one of the last

Arab

strongholds, after a summer-long siege by

Roger I of Sicily

and his son

Jordan of Hauteville

, who was given the city as count. New quarters were

built, and the cathedral was restored, as well as other churches.

In 1194

Henry VI

of Swabia

occupied Syracuse. After a short period of

Genoese

rule (1205–1220), which favoured a rise of trades, Syracuse was

conquered back by emperor

Frederick II

. He began the construction of the

Castello Maniace

, the Bishops’ Palace and the Bellomo Palace. Frederick’s

death brought a period of unrest and feudal anarchy. In the struggle between the

Anjou
and

Aragonese

monarchies, Syracuse sided with the Aragonese and defeated the

Anjou in 1298, receiving from the Spanish sovereigns great privileges in reward.

The pre-eminence of baronal families is also shown by the construction of the

palaces of Abela
,

Chiaramonte

, Nava
,

Montalto
.

 

The history of
Ancient Greek
coinage can be divided (along
with most other Greek art forms) into four periods, the
Archaic
, the
Classical
, the
Hellenistic
and the
Roman
. The Archaic period extends from the
introduction of coinage to the Greek world during the
7th century BC
until the
Persian Wars
in about 480 BC. The Classical
period then began, and lasted until the conquests of
Alexander the Great
in about 330 BC, which
began the Hellenistic period, extending until the
Roman
absorption of the Greek world in the 1st
century BC. The Greek cities continued to produce their own coins for several
more centuries under Roman rule. The coins produced during this period are
called
Roman provincial coins
or Greek Imperial Coins.
Ancient Greek coins of all four periods span over a period of more than ten
centuries.

Weight
standards and denominations

The basic standards of the Ancient Greek monetary system were the
Attic
standard, based on the Athenian
drachma
of 4.3 grams of silver and the
Corinthian
standard based on the
stater
of 8.6 grams of silver, that was
subdivided into three silver drachmas of 2.9 grams. The word
drachm
(a) means “a handful”, literally “a
grasp”. Drachmae were divided into six
obols
(from the Greek word for a
spit
), and six spits made a “handful”. This
suggests that before coinage came to be used in Greece, spits in
prehistoric times
were used as measures of
daily transaction. In archaic/pre-numismatic times iron was valued for making
durable tools and weapons, and its casting in spit form may have actually
represented a form of transportable
bullion
, which eventually became bulky and
inconvenient after the adoption of precious metals. Because of this very aspect,
Spartan
legislation famously forbade issuance
of Spartan coin, and enforced the continued use of iron spits so as to
discourage avarice and the hoarding of wealth. In addition to its original
meaning (which also gave the
euphemistic

diminutive
“obelisk“,
“little spit”), the word obol (ὀβολός, obolós, or ὀβελός,
obelós) was retained as a Greek word for coins of small value, still used as
such in Modern Greek
slang (όβολα, óvola,
“monies”).

The obol was further subdivided into tetartemorioi (singular
tetartemorion) which represented 1/4 of an obol, or 1/24 of a drachm. This
coin (which was known to have been struck in
Athens
,
Colophon
, and several other cities) is
mentioned by Aristotle
as the smallest silver coin.^:237
Various multiples of this denomination were also struck, including the
trihemitetartemorion (literally three half-tetartemorioi) valued at 3/8 of
an obol.^:

Denominations of silver drachma
Image	Denomination	Value	Weight
	Dekadrachm	10 drachmas	43 grams
	Tetradrachm	4 drachmas	17.2 grams
	Didrachm	2 drachmas	8.6 grams
	Drachma	6 obols	4.3 grams
	Tetrobol	4 obols	2.85 grams
	Triobol (hemidrachm)	3 obols	2.15 grams
	Diobol	2 obols	1.43 grams
	Obol	4 tetartemorions	0.72 grams
	Tritartemorion	3 tetartemorions	0.54 grams
	Hemiobol	2 tetartemorions	0.36 grams
	Trihemitartemorion	3/2 tetartemorions	0.27 grams
	Tetartemorion		0.18 grams
	Hemitartemorion	½ tetartemorion	0.09 grams

Archaic period

The first coins were issued in either Lydia or Ionia in Asia Minor at some
time before 600 BC, either by the non-Greek Lydians for their own use or perhaps
because Greek mercenaries wanted to be paid in precious metal at the conclusion
of their time of service, and wanted to have their payments marked in a way that
would authenticate them. These coins were made of
electrum
, an alloy of gold and silver that was
highly prized and abundant in that area. By the middle of the 6th century BC,
technology had advanced, making the production of pure gold and silver coins
simpler. Accordingly, King
Croesus
introduced a bi-metallic standard that
allowed for coins of pure gold and pure silver to be struck and traded in the
marketplace.

The Greek world was divided into more than two thousand self-governing
city-states (in
Greek
, poleis), and more than half of
them issued their own coins. Some coins circulated widely beyond their polis,
indicating that they were being used in inter-city trade; the first example
appears to have been the silver stater or didrachm of
Aegina
that regularly turns up in hoards in
Egypt
and the
Levant
, places which were deficient in silver
supply. As such coins circulated more widely, other cities began to mint coins
to this “Aeginetan” weight standard of (6.1 grams to the drachm), other cities
included their own symbols on the coins. This is not unlike present day

Euro coins, which are recognisably from a particular country, but
usable all over the
Euro zone
.

Athenian coins, however, were struck on the “Attic” standard, with a drachm
equaling 4.3 grams of silver. Over time, Athens’ plentiful supply of silver from
the mines at
Laurion
and its increasing dominance in trade
made this the pre-eminent standard. These coins, known as “owls” because of
their central design feature, were also minted to an extremely tight standard of
purity and weight. This contributed to their success as the premier trade coin
of their era. Tetradrachms on this weight standard continued to be a widely used
coin (often the most widely used) through the classical period. By the time of
Alexander the Great
and his
Hellenistic successors
, this large denomination
was being regularly used to make large payments, or was often saved for
hoarding.

Classical period

The
Classical period
saw Greek coinage reach a high
level of technical and aesthetic quality. Larger cities now produced a range of
fine silver and gold coins, most bearing a portrait of their patron god or
goddess or a legendary hero on one side, and a symbol of the city on the other.
Some coins employed a visual pun: some coins from
Rhodes
featured a

rose, since the Greek word for rose is rhodon. The use of
inscriptions on coins also began, usually the name of the issuing city.

The wealthy cities of Sicily produced some especially fine coins. The large
silver decadrachm (10-drachm) coin from
Syracuse
is regarded by many collectors as the
finest coin produced in the ancient world, perhaps ever. Syracusan issues were
rather standard in their imprints, one side bearing the head of the nymph
Arethusa
and the other usually a victorious
quadriga
. The
tyrants of Syracuse
were fabulously rich, and
part of their
public relations
policy was to fund
quadrigas
for the
Olympic chariot race
, a very expensive
undertaking. As they were often able to finance more than one quadriga at a
time, they were frequent victors in this highly prestigious event.

Syracuse was one of the epicenters of numismatic art during the classical
period. Led by the engravers Kimon and Euainetos, Syracuse produced some of the
finest coin designs of antiquity.

Hellenistic period

Still, some of the
Greco-Bactrian
coins, and those of their
successors in India, the
Indo-Greeks
, are considered the finest examples
of
Greek numismatic art
with “a nice blend of
realism and idealization”, including the largest coins to be minted in the
Hellenistic world: the largest gold coin was minted by
Eucratides
(reigned 171–145 BC), the largest
silver coin by the Indo-Greek king
Amyntas Nikator
(reigned c. 95–90 BC). The
portraits “show a degree of individuality never matched by the often bland
depictions of their royal contemporaries further West” (Roger Ling, “Greece and
the Hellenistic World”).

Minting

All Greek coins were
handmade
, rather than machined as modern coins
are. The design for the obverse was carved (in
incuso
) into a block of bronze or possibly
iron, called a
die
. The design of the reverse was carved into
a similar punch. A blank disk of gold, silver, or electrum was cast in a mold
and then, placed between these two and the punch struck hard with a hammer,
raising the design on both sides of the coin.

Coins as
a symbol of the city-state

Coins of Greek city-states depicted a unique
symbol
or feature, an early form of
emblem
, also known as
badge
in numismatics, that represented their
city and promoted the prestige of their state. Corinthian stater for example
depicted pegasus
the mythological winged stallion, tamed
by their hero
Bellerophon
. Coins of
Ephesus
depicted the
bee
sacred to
Artemis
. Drachmas of Athens depicted the
owl of Athena
. Drachmas of
Aegina
depicted a
chelone
. Coins of
Selinunte
depicted a “selinon” (σέλινον
– celery
). Coins of
Heraclea
depicted
Heracles
. Coins of

Gela depicted a man-headed bull, the personification of the river
Gela
. Coins of
Rhodes
depicted a “rhodon” (ῥόδον^[8]
– rose
). Coins of
Knossos
depicted the
labyrinth
or the mythical creature
minotaur
, a symbol of the
Minoan Crete
. Coins of
Melos
depicted a “mēlon” (μήλον –
apple
). Coins of
Thebes
depicted a Boeotian shield.

 

Commemorative coins

The use of
commemorative coins
to celebrate a victory or
an achievement of the state was a Greek invention. Coins are valuable, durable
and pass through many hands. In an age without newspapers or other mass media,
they were an ideal way of disseminating a political message. The first such coin
was a commemorative decadrachm issued by
Athens
following the Greek victory in the
Persian Wars
. On these coins that were struck
around 480 BC, the owl
of Athens, the goddess
Athena
‘s sacred bird, was depicted facing the
viewer with wings outstretched, holding a spray of olive leaves, the
olive tree
being Athena’s sacred plant and also
a symbol of peace and prosperity. The message was that Athens was powerful and
victorious, but also peace-loving. Another commemorative coin, a silver
dekadrachm known as ” Demareteion”, was minted at
Syracuse
at approximately the same time to
celebrate the defeat of the
Carthaginians
. On the obverse it bears a
portrait of
Arethusa
or queen Demarete.

Ancient Greek coins
today

Collections of Ancient Greek coins are held by museums around the world, of
which the collections of the
British Museum
, the
American Numismatic Society
, and the
Danish National Museum
are considered to be the
finest. The American Numismatic Society collection comprises some 100,000
ancient Greek coins from many regions and mints, from Spain and North Africa to
Afghanistan. To varying degrees, these coins are available for study by
academics and researchers.

There is also an active collector market for Greek coins. Several auction
houses in Europe and the United States specialize in ancient coins (including
Greek) and there is also a large on-line market for such coins.

Hoards of Greek coins are still being found in Europe, Middle East, and North
Africa, and some of the coins in these hoards find their way onto the market.
Coins are the only art form from the Ancient world which is common enough and
durable enough to be within the reach of ordinary collectors.