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Valentinian I – Roman Emperor: 364-375 A.D.
Bronze AE3 17mm (2.34 grams) Siscia mint: 364-367 A.D.
DN VALENTINI-ANVS PF AVG, pearl diademed, draped, cuirassed bust right
CONCORDIA AVG G G – Roma seated left on throne, holding Victory on globe
and sceptre. Mintmark BSISC.
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Valentinian I (Latin:
Flavius Valentinianus Augustus;321 –
17 November 375), also known as Valentinian the Great, was
Roman emperor
from 364 to 375. Upon becoming
emperor he made his brother
Valens
his co-emperor, giving him rule of the
eastern provinces while Valentinian retained the west.
During his reign, Valentinian fought successfully against the
Alamanni
,
Quadi
, and
Sarmatians
. Most notable was his victory over
the Alamanni in 367 at the
Battle of Solicinium
. His brilliant general
Count Theodosius
defeated a revolt in
Africa
and the
Great Conspiracy
, a coordinated assault on
Britain
by
Picts
,
Scots
, and
Saxons
. Valentinian was also the last emperor
to conduct campaigns across both the
Rhine
and
Danube
rivers. Valentinian rebuilt and improved
the fortifications along the frontiers – even building fortresses in enemy
territory.
Due to the successful nature of his reign and almost immediate decline of the
empire after his death, he is often considered the “last great
western emperor
“. He founded the
Valentinian Dynasty
, with his sons
Gratian
and
Valentinian II
succeeding him in the western
half of the empire.
Early life
Solidus of emperor Valentinian I.
Valentinian was born in 321[6]
at
Cibalae
in southern
Pannonia
(now
Vinkovci
in
Croatia
).[7]
Valentinian and his younger brother
Valens
were the sons of
Gratianus Major
, a prominent commander during
the reigns of emperors
Constantine I
and
Constans I
.[8]
He and his brother grew up on the family estate where they were educated in a
variety of subjects, including painting and sculpting.[9]
Gratianus was promoted to
Comes
Africae in the late 320’s or early
330’s, and the young Valentinian accompanied his father to Africa.[10]
However, Gratianus was soon accused of embezzlement and was forced to retire.[10]
Valentinian joined the army in the late 330’s and later probably acquired the
position of
protector domesticus
.[10]
Gratianus was later recalled during the early 340s and was made comes of
Britannia
.[10]
After holding this post, Gratianus retired to the family estate in Cibalae.[11]
In 350, Constans I was assassinated by agents of the
usurper
Magnentius
, a commander in
Gaul proclaimed emperor by his soldiers.[12]
Constantius II
, older brother of Constans and
emperor in the East, promptly set forth towards Magnentius with a large army.[13]
The following year the two emperors met in Pannonia. The ensuing
Battle of Mursa Major
resulted in a costly
victory for Constantius.[14]
Two years later he defeated Magnentius again in southern Gaul at the
Battle of Mons Seleucus
.[15]
Magnentius, now realizing the futility of continuing his revolt, committed
suicide in August that year; making Constantius sole ruler of the empire.[16]
It was around this time that Constantius confiscated Gratianus’ property, for
supposedly showing hospitality to Magnentius when he was in Pannonia.[11]
Despite his father’s fall from favor, Valentinian does not seem to have been
adversely affected at this time, making it unlikely he ever fought for the
usurper.[17]
It is known that Valentinian was in the region during the conflict, but what
involvement he had in the war, if any, is unknown.[17]
Service
under Constantius and Julian
The conflict between Magnentius and Constantius had allowed the
Alamanni
and
Franks
to take advantage of the confusion and
cross the Rhine
, attacking several important settlements
and fortifications.[10][17]
In 355, after deposing his cousin Gallus but still feeling the crises of the
empire too much for one emperor to handle, Constantius raised his cousin
Julian
to the rank of Caesar.[10]
With the situation in Gaul rapidly deteriorating, Julian was made at least
nominal commander of one of the two main armies in Gaul,
Barbatio
being commander of the other.[10]
Constantius devised a strategy where Julian and Barbatio would operate in a
pincer movement against the Alamanni.[17]
However, a band of Alamanni slipped past Julian and Barbatio and attacked
Lugdunum
(Lyon).
Julian sent the tribunes Valentinian and
Bainobaudes
to watch the road the raiders would
have to return by. However, their efforts were hindered by Barbatio and his
tribune
Cella
. The Alamann king
Chnodomarius
took advantage of the situation
and attacked the Romans in detail, inflicting heavy losses.[17]
Barbatio complained to Constantius and the debacle was blamed on Valentinian and
Bainobaudes, who were cashiered from the army.[17]
With his career in ruins, Valentinian returned to his new family estate in
Sirmium
. Two years later his first son
Gratian
was born by his wife
Marina Severa
.[18]
Valentinian’s actions become uncertain around this time, but he may have been
exiled for refusing to do sacrifice to Julian.[19]
Rise to power
At the news of Julian’s death, the army hastily declared a commander,
Jovian
, emperor. The army still found itself
beleaguered by Persian attacks, forcing Jovian to accept humiliating peace
terms.[20]
Jovian’s authority within the empire was still insecure, so he sent a notary
Procopius
and the tribune
Memoridus
west to announce his accession.[20]
During Jovian’s reign Valentinian was promoted to tribune of a Scutarii
(elite infantry) regiment, and was dispatched to Ancyra. Jovian’s rule would be
short – only eight months – and before he could even consolidate his position in
Constantinople
he died en route between
Ancyra
and
Nicaea
. His death was attributed to either
poisoning or assassination. Jovian is remembered mostly for restoring
Christianity to its previous favored status under Constantine and his sons.
The army marched to Nicaea, and a meeting of civil and military officials was
convened to choose a new emperor. Two names were proposed: Aequitius, a tribune
of the first Scutarii, and Januarius, a relative of Jovian’s in charge of
military supplies in Illyricum. Both were rejected; Aequitius as too rough and
boorish,[21]
Januarius because he was too far away.[22]
As a man well qualified and at hand, the assembly finally agreed upon
Valentinian and sent messengers to inform him in Ancyra.
Emperor
Valentinian accepted the acclamation on 26 February 364. As he prepared to
make his accession speech the soldiers threatened to riot, apparently uncertain
as to where his loyalties lay. Valentinian reassured them that the army was his
greatest priority. According to Ammianus the soldiers were astounded by
Valentinian’s bold demeanor and his willingness to assume the imperial
authority. To further prevent a succession crisis he agreed to pick a
co-Augustus. His decision to elect a fellow-emperor could also be construed as a
move to appease any opposition among the civilian officials in the eastern
portion of the Empire. By agreeing to appoint a co-ruler, he assured the eastern
officials that someone with imperial authority would remain in the east to
protect their interests.
Valentinian selected his brother Valens as co-Augustus at Constantinople on
28 March 364. This was done over the objections of Dagalaifus, the
magister equitum
. Ammianus makes it clear
that Valens was subordinate to his brother. The remainder of 364 was spent
delegating administrative duties and military commands. Valentinian retained the
services of Dagalaifus and promoted Aequitius to Comes Illyricum. Valens
was given the
Prefecture of Oriens
, governed by
prefect
Salutius
. Valentinian gained control of
Italy
,
Gaul
,
Africa
, and
Illyricum
. Valens resided in Constantinople,
while Valentinian’s court was at Milan.
Campaigns in
Gaul and Germania
In 365 the
Alamanni
crossed the Rhine and invaded Gaul.
Simultaneously,
Procopius
– the last scion of the
Constantinian dynasty
– began his revolt
against Valens in the east. According to Ammianus, Valentinian received news of
both the Alamanni and Procopius’ revolt on 1 November while on his way to
Paris
. He initially sent Dagalaifus to fight
the Alamanni[23]
while he himself made preparations to march east and help Valens. After
receiving counsel from his court and deputations from the leading Gallic cities
begging him to stay and protect Gaul, he decided to remain in Gaul and fight the
Alamanni.[24][25]
Valentinian advanced to
Durocortorum
and sent two generals, Charietto
and Severianus, against the invaders.[26]
Both generals were promptly defeated and killed.[27]
In 366, Dagalaifus was sent against the Alamanni but he was also ineffective.[28]
Late in the campaigning season Dagalaifus was replaced by Jovinus, a general
from the court of Valentinian. After several battles Jovinus pushed the Alamanni
out of Gaul and was awarded the consulate the following year for his efforts.[29]
In early 367 Valentinian was distracted from launching a punitive expedition
against the Alamanni due to crises in Britain and northern Gaul. The Alamanni
promptly re-crossed the Rhine and plundered
Moguntiacum
. Valentinian succeeded in arranging
the assassination of Vithicabius, an Alamannic leader, but Valentinian was more
determined to bring the Alamanni under Roman hegemony. Valentinian spent the
entire winter of 367 gathering a massive army for a spring offensive. He
summoned the Comes Italiae Sebastianus, with the Italian and Illyrian
legions, to join Jovinus and Severus, the
magister peditum
. In the spring of 368
Valentinian, his eight year old son Gratian and the army crossed the Rhine and
Main river
into Alamannic territory. They did
not encounter any resistance initially – burning any dwellings or food stores
they found along the way. Finally, Valentinian fought the Alamanni in the
Battle of Solicinium
; the Romans were
victorious[30]
but suffered heavy casualties.[31]
A temporary peace was reached and Valentinian returned to
Trier
for the winter.[32]
During 369, Valentinian ordered new defensive works to be constructed and old
structures refurbished along the length of the Rhine’s west bank.[33]
Boldly, he ordered the construction of a fortress across the Rhine in the
mountains near modern
Heidelberg
.[34]
The Alamanni sent envoys to protest, but they were dismissed. The Alamanni
attacked the fortress while it was still under construction and destroyed it.[35]
In 370 the Saxons renewed their attacks on northern Gaul. Nannienus, the
comes in charge of the troops in northern Gaul, urged Severus to come to his
aid. After several modest successes, a truce was called and the Saxons gave the
Romans young men fit for duty in the Roman military – in exchange for free
passage back to their homeland. The Romans – preferring to be rid of many Saxon
enemies now rather than later – treacherously ambushed them and killed them all.
Valentinian meanwhile tried to persuade the
Burgundians
– bitter enemies of the Alamanni –
to attack Macrian
, a powerful Alamannic chieftain. If the
Alamanni tried to flee, Valentinian would be waiting for them with his army.
Negotiations with the Burgundians broke down when Valentinian, in his usual
high-handed manner, refused to meet with the Burgundian envoys and personally
assure them of Roman support. Nevertheless, rumors of a Roman alliance with the
Burgundians did have the effect of scattering the Alamanni through fear of an
imminent attack from their enemies. This event allowed the
magister equitum
Theodosius
to attack the Alamanni through
Raetia – taking many Alamannic prisoners. These captured Alamanni were settled
in the
Po river
valley in Italy, where they were still
settled at the time Ammianus wrote his history.
Valentinian campaigned unsuccessfully for four more years to defeat Macrian
though in 372 he barely escaped capture by Theodosius. Meanwhile, Valentinian
continued to recruit heavily from Alamanni friendly to Rome. He sent the
Alamannic king Fraomarius, along with Alamannic troops commanded by Bitheridius
and Hortarius, to Britain in order to replenish troops there. Valentinian’s
Alamannic campaigns, however, were hampered by troubles first in Africa, and
later on the Danube river. In 374 Valentinian was forced to make peace with
Macrian because the Emperor’s presence was needed to counter an invasion of
Illyricum by the Quadi and Sarmatians.
The Great Conspiracy
In 367, Valentinian received reports from Britain that a combined force of
Picts
,
Attacotti
and
Scots
had killed the
Comes litoris Saxonici
Nectaridus
and
Dux Britanniarum
Fullofaudes
. At the same time, Frankish and
Saxon forces were raiding the coastal areas of northern Gaul. The empire was in
the midst of the
Great Conspiracy
– and was in danger of losing
control of Britain altogether. Valentinian set out for Britain, sending Comes
domesticorum Severus ahead of him to investigate. Severus was not able to
correct the situation and returned to Gaul, meeting Valentinian at
Samarobriva
. Valentinian then sent Jovinus to
Britain and promoted Severus to magister peditum. It was at this time that
Valentinian fell ill and a battle for succession broke out between Severus, a
representative of the army, and Rusticus Julianus, magister memoriae and
a representative of the Gallic nobility. Valentinian soon recovered however and
appointed his son Gratian as his co-Augustus in the west. Ammianus remarks that
such an action was unprecedented. Jovinus quickly returned saying that he needed
more men to take care of the situation. In 368 Valentinian appointed Theodosius
as the new
Comes Britanniarum
with instructions to
return Britain to Roman rule. Meanwhile, Severus and Jovinus were to accompany
the emperor on his campaign against the Alamanni.
Theodosius arrived in 368 with the
Batavi
,
Heruli
, Jovii and Victores legions. Landing at
Rutupiæ
, he proceeded to
Londinium
restoring order to southern Britain.
Later, he rallied the remaining garrison which was originally stationed in
Britain; it was apparent the units had lost their cohesiveness when Fullofaudes
and Nectaridus had been defeated. Theodosius sent for
Civilis
to be installed as the new
vicarius
of the
diocese
and
Dulcitius
as an additional general. In 369,
Theodosius set about reconquering the areas north of
London
; putting down the revolt of
Valentinus
, the brother-in-law of a
vicarius
Maximinus
. Subsequently, Theodosius restored
the rest of Britain to the empire and rebuilt many fortifications – renaming
northern Britain ‘Valentia’.
After his return in 369, Valentinian promoted Theodosius to magister equitum
in place of Jovinus.
Revolt in Africa and crises on the Danube
In 372, the rebellion of
Firmus
broke out in the African provinces. This
rebellion was driven by the corruption of the comes Romanus. Romanus took
sides in the murderous disputes among the legitimate and illegitimate children
of Nubel, a Moorish prince and leading Roman client in Africa. Resentment of
Romanus’ peculations and his failure to defend the province from desert nomads
caused some of the provincials to revolt. Valentinian sent in Theodosius to
restore imperial control. Over the following two years Theodosius uncovered
Romanus’ crimes, arrested him and his supporters, and defeated Firmus.
In 373, hostilities erupted with the
Quadi
, a group of Germanic-speaking people
living on the upper Danube. Like the Alamanni, the Quadi were outraged that
Valentinian was building fortifications in their territory. They complained and
sent deputations that were ignored by the magister armorum per Illyricum
Aequitius. However, by 373 the construction of these forts was behind schedule.
Maximinus, now praetorian prefect of Gaul, arranged with Aequitius to promote
his son Marcellianus and put him in charge of finishing the project. The
protests of Quadic leaders continued to delay the project, and in a fit of
frustration Marcellianus murdered the Quadic king Gabinius at a banquet
ostensibly arranged for peaceful negotiations. This roused the Quadi to war;
along with their allies the Sarmatians. During the fall, they crossed the Danube
and began ravaging the province of
Pannonia Valeria
. The marauders could not
penetrate the fortified cities, but they heavily damaged the unprotected
countryside. Two legions were sent in but failed to coordinate and were routed
by the Sarmatians. Meanwhile, another group of Sarmatians invaded
Moesia
, but were driven back by the son of
Theodosius, Dux Moesiae and later emperor
Theodosius
.
Valentinian did not receive news of these crises until late 374. The
following spring he set out from Trier and arrived at
Carnuntum
, which was deserted. There he was met
by Sarmatian envoys who begged forgiveness for their actions. Valentinian
replied that he would investigate what had happened and act accordingly.
Valentinian ignored Marcellianus’ treacherous actions and decided to punish the
Quadi. He was accompanied by Sebastianus and
Merobaudes
, and spent the summer months
preparing for the campaign. In the fall he crossed the Danube at
Aquincum
into Quadi territory.[36]
After pillaging Quadi lands without opposition, he retired to
Savaria
to winter quarters.[37]
In the spring he decided to continue campaigning and moved from Savaria to
Brigetio
. Once he arrived on 17 November, he
received a deputation from the Quadi. In return for supplying fresh recruits to
the Roman army, the Quadi were to be allowed to leave in peace. However, before
the envoys left they were granted an audience with Valentinian. The envoys
insisted that the conflict was caused by the building of Roman forts in their
lands; furthermore individual bands of Quadi were not necessarily bound to the
rule of the chiefs who had made treaties with the Romans – and thus might attack
the Romans at any time. The attitude of the envoys so enraged Valentinian that
he suffered a stroke that ended his life.
Reputation
A.H.M. Jones
writes that though he was “less of
a boor” than his chief rival for election to the imperial throne, “he was of a
violent and brutal temper, and not only uncultivated himself, but hostile to
cultivated persons”, as
Ammianus
tells us, ‘he hated the well-dressed
and educated and wealthy and well-born’. He was, however, an able soldier and a
conscientious administrator, and took an interest in the welfare of the humbler
classes, from which his father had risen. Unfortunately his good intentions were
often frustrated by a bad choice of ministers, and an obstinate belief in their
merits despite all evidence to the contrary.”[38]
According to the
Encyclopædia Britannica 1911
, he was a founder
of schools, and provided medical attendance for the poor of
Rome, by appointing a physician for each of the fourteen districts of
the city.
Valentinian was a
Christian
but permitted liberal religious
freedom to all his subjects, proscribing only some forms of rituals such as
particular types of sacrifices, and banning the practice of magic. Against all
abuses, both civil and ecclesiastical (excepting, of course, his own excesses),
Valentinian steadily set his face, even against the increasing wealth and
worldliness of the clergy. His chief flaw was his temper, which at times was
frightful, and showed itself in its full fierceness in the punishment of persons
accused of witchcraft, some kinds of fortune-telling or magical practices.”[39]
Socrates Scholasticus
gives an interesting
account in his Historia Ecclesiastica of Valentinian’s marriages, that has
inspired some to call this emperor
polygamous
. According to the text: the empress
Justina
“became known to
Marina Severa
, wife of the emperor Valentinian,
and had frequent intercourse with the empress, until their intimacy at length
grew to such an extent that they were accustomed to bathe together. When Severa
saw Justina in the bath she was greatly struck with the beauty of the virgin,
and spoke of her to the emperor; saying that the daughter of Justus was so
lovely a creature, and possessed of such symmetry of form, that she herself,
though a woman, was altogether charmed with her. The emperor, treasuring this
description by his wife in his own mind, considered with himself how he could
espouse Justina, without repudiating Severa, as she had borne him Gratian, whom
he had created Augustus a little while before. He accordingly framed a law, and
caused it to be published throughout all the cities, by which any man was
permitted to have two lawful wives. The law was promulgated and he married
Justina, by whom he had Valentinian the younger.” (Book IV, chapt. 31.)[40]
This story is only known to Socrates. There is no trace of any edict allowing
polygamy in the laws passed by Valentinian I, his predecessors or his
successors. This practice is unknown in all other sources of Classical
Antiquity. Valentinian I may have divorced Severa according to Roman Law, which
allowed for divorce (see
Women in Ancient Rome
).[41]
But since divorce was not acknowledged by Christians,[42]
Socrates contemptuously describes him as a bigamist. It is also possible that
Socrates, who was a
Novatianist
attempted to accuse Justina, who
was an
Arianist
, of fornication, a common aspersion
against other cults. Gibbon maintains that the marriages of Valentinian were
conducted successively.[43]
According to the Antique sources of
John Malalas
, the
Chronicon Paschale
and
John of Nikiu
the empress Severa was banished
by Valentinian I for conducting an illegal transaction, before he consorted with
Justina. Barnes believes this story to be an attempt to justify the divorce of
Valentinian I without accusing the emperor.[4
In
traditional Roman religion
, Roma was a female
deity
who
personified the city of Rome
and more broadly, the Roman state. Her image appears on the base of the
column of Antoninus Pius
. Roma, formerly queen of almost the whole
earth. Horace (L. iv. od. 3) calls her the prince of cities; and according to
Martial (L. xii. epig. 8) she is terrarum dea gentiumque.
In
Greek mythology
,
Nike was a
goddess
who personified
victory
, also known as the Winged Goddess of
Victory. The Roman equivalent was
Victoria
. Depending upon the time of various
myths, she was described as the daughter of
Pallas
(Titan) and
Styx (Water) and the sister of
Kratos
(Strength),
Bia
(Force), and
Zelus
(Zeal). Nike and her siblings were close
companions of Zeus
, the dominant deity of the
Greek pantheon
. According to classical (later)
myth, Styx brought them to Zeus when
the
god was assembling allies for the
Titan War
against the older deities. Nike
assumed the role of the divine
charioteer
, a role in which she often is
portrayed in Classical Greek art. Nike flew around battlefields rewarding the
victors with glory and fame.
Nike is seen with wings in most statues and paintings. Most other winged
deities in the Greek pantheon had shed their wings by Classical times. Nike is
the goddess of strength, speed, and victory. Nike was a very close acquaintance
of Athena
, and is thought to have stood in
Athena’s outstretched hand in the statue of Athena located in the Parthenon.
Nike is one of the most commonly portrayed figures on Greek coins.
Names stemming from Nike include amongst others:
Nicholas
, Nicola, Nick, Nikolai, Nils, Klaas,
Nicole, Ike, Niki, Nikita, Nika, Niketas, and Nico.
In
Roman mythology
, Victoria was the personification/Goddess of victory.
She is the Roman version of the
Greek goddess
Nike
, and was associated with
Bellona
. She was adapted from the
Sabine
agricultural goddess
Vacuna
and had
a
temple
on the
Palatine Hill
. Her name (in Latin) means victory. Unlike the Greek Nike, Victoria (Latin
for “victory”) was a major part of Roman society. Multiple temples were erected
in her honour. When her statue was removed in 382 AD by emperor
Gratianus
there was much anger in Rome. She was normally worshipped by
triumphant
generals returning from war.
Also unlike the Greek Nike,who was known for success in athletic games such
as chariot races, Victoria was a symbol of victory over death and determined who
would be successful during war. Appearing on Roman coins, jewelry, architecture, and other arts, Victoria is
often seen with or in a
chariot
. An
example of this is her place upon the
Brandenburg Gate
in Berlin, Germany.
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