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Valerian I
–
Roman Emperor
: 253-260 A.D. –
Silver Antoninianus 19mm (1.92 grams)
Struck circa 253-260 A.D.
Reference: RIC 86, C 55
IMPCPLICVALERIANVSAVG – Radiate, draped bust right.
FELICITASAVGG – Felicitas standing left, holding caduceus and cornucopia.
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The cornucopia (from Latin cornu copiae) or horn of plenty
is a symbol of abundance and nourishment, commonly a large horn-shaped container
overflowing with produce, flowers, nuts, other edibles, or wealth in some form.
Originating in
classical antiquity
, it has continued as a
symbol in
Western art
, and it is particularly associated
with the
Thanksgiving
holiday in
North America
.
Allegorical
depiction of the Roman
goddess
Abundantia
with a cornucopia, by
Rubens
(ca. 1630)
In Mythology
Mythology
offers multiple
explanations of the origin
of the cornucopia.
One of the best-known involves the birth and nurturance of the infant
Zeus, who had to be hidden from his devouring father
Cronus
. In a cave on
Mount Ida
on the island of
Crete
, baby Zeus was cared for and protected by
a number of divine attendants, including the goat
Amalthea
(“Nourishing Goddess”), who fed him
with her milk. The suckling future king of the gods had unusual abilities and
strength, and in playing with his nursemaid accidentally broke off one of her
horns
, which then had the divine power to
provide unending nourishment, as the foster mother had to the god.
In another myth, the cornucopia was created when
Heracles
(Roman
Hercules
) wrestled with the river god
Achelous
and wrenched off one of his horns;
river gods were sometimes depicted as horned. This version is represented in the
Achelous and Hercules
mural painting
by the
American Regionalist
artist
Thomas Hart Benton
.
The cornucopia became the attribute of several
Greek
and
Roman deities
, particularly those associated
with the harvest, prosperity, or spiritual abundance, such as personifications
of Earth (Gaia
or
Terra
); the child
Plutus
, god of riches and son of the grain
goddess Demeter
; the
nymph
Maia
; and
Fortuna
, the goddess of luck, who had the power
to grant prosperity. In
Roman Imperial cult
, abstract Roman deities who
fostered peace (pax
Romana) and prosperity were also depicted with a cornucopia,
including Abundantia
, “Abundance” personified, and
Annona
, goddess of the
grain supply to the city of Rome
.
Pluto
, the classical ruler of the underworld in
the
mystery religions
, was a giver of agricultural,
mineral and spiritual wealth, and in art often holds a cornucopia to distinguish
him from the gloomier Hades
, who holds a
drinking horn
instead.
Modern depictions
In modern depictions, the cornucopia is typically a hollow, horn-shaped
wicker basket filled with various kinds of festive
fruit
and
vegetables
. In North America, the cornucopia
has come to be associated with
Thanksgiving
and the harvest. Cornucopia is
also the name of the annual November Wine and Food celebration in
Whistler
, British Columbia, Canada. Two
cornucopias are seen in the
flag
and
state seal
of
Idaho
. The Great
Seal
of
North Carolina
depicts Liberty standing and
Plenty holding a cornucopia. The coat of arms of
Colombia
,
Panama
,
Peru and
Venezuela
, and the Coat of Arms of the State of
Victoria, Australia
, also feature the
cornucopia, symbolising prosperity.
The horn of plenty is used on body art and at Halloween, as it is a symbol of
fertility, fortune and abundance.
-
Base of a statue of
Louis XV of France
The caduceus from
Greek
“herald’s staff” is the staff carried by
Hermes
in
Greek mythology
. The same staff was also borne
by heralds in general, for example by
Iris
, the messenger of
Hera. It is a short staff entwined by two
serpents
, sometimes surmounted by wings. In
Roman iconography it was often depicted being carried in the left hand of
Mercury
, the messenger of the gods, guide of
the dead and protector of merchants, shepherds, gamblers, liars, and thieves.
As a symbolic object it represents Hermes (or the Roman Mercury), and by
extension trades, occupations or undertakings associated with the god. In later
Antiquity
the caduceus provided the basis for
the
astrological symbol
representing the
planet Mercury
. Thus, through its use in
astrology
and
alchemy
, it has come to denote the
elemental metal
of the same name.
By extension of its association with Mercury/Hermes, the caduceus is also a
recognized symbol of commerce and negotiation, two realms in which balanced
exchange and reciprocity are recognized as ideals. This association is ancient,
and consistent from the Classical period to modern times. The caduceus is also
used as a symbol representing printing, again by extension of the attributes of
Mercury (in this case associated with writing and eloquence).
The caduceus is sometimes mistakenly used
as a symbol of medicine and/or medical practice
,
especially in
North America
, because of widespread confusion
with the traditional medical symbol, the
rod of Asclepius
, which has only a single snake
and no wings.
The term kerukeion denoted any herald’s staff, not necessarily
associated with Hermes in particular.
Lewis Richard Farnell
(1909) in his study of
the cult of Hermes assumed that the two snakes had simply developed out of
ornaments of the shepherd’s crook used by heralds as their staff. This view has
been rejected by later authors pointing to parallel iconography in the Ancient
Near East. It has been argued that the staff or wand entwined by two snakes was
itself representing a god in the pre-anthropomorphic era. Like the
herm
or
priapus
, it would thus be a predecessor of the
anthropomorphic Hermes of the classical era.
Ancient Near East
William Hayes Ward
(1910) discovered that
symbols similar to the classical caduceus sometimes appeared on
Mesopotamian cylinder seals
. He suggested the
symbol originated some time between 3000 and 4000 BCE, and that it might have
been the source of the Greek caduceus.[10]
A.L. Frothingham incorporated Dr. Ward’s research into his own work, published
in 1916, in which he suggested that the prototype of Hermes was an “Oriental
deity of Babylonian extraction” represented in his earliest form as a snake god.
From this perspective, the caduceus was originally representative of Hermes
himself, in his early form as the Underworld god
Ningishzida
, “messenger” of the “Earth Mother”.
The caduceus is mentioned in passing by
Walter Burkert
[12]
as “really the image of copulating snakes taken over from Ancient Near Eastern
tradition”.
In Egyptian iconography, the
Djed pillar is depicted as containing a snake in a frieze of the
Dendera Temple complex
.
The rod of Moses
and the
brazen serpent
are frequently compared to the
caduceus, especially as Moses is acting as a messenger of God to the
Pharaoh
at the point in the narrative where he
changes his staff into a serpent.[13]
Classical antiquity
Mythology
The
Homeric hymn
to Hermes relates how Hermes
offered his lyre fashioned from a tortoise shell as compensation for the
cattle he stole
from his half brother
Apollo
. Apollo in return gave Hermes the
caduceus as a gesture of friendship. The association with the serpent thus
connects Hermes to Apollo
, as later the serpent was associated
with Asclepius
, the “son of Apollo”. The association
of Apollo with the serpent is a continuation of the older
Indo-European
dragon
-slayer motif.
Wilhelm Heinrich Roscher
(1913) pointed out
that the serpent as an attribute of both Hermes and Asclepius is a variant of
the “pre-historic semi-chthonic serpent hero known at Delphi as
Python
“, who in classical mythology is slain by
Apollo.
One Greek myth of origin
of the caduceus is part of the
story of Tiresias
, who found two snakes copulating and
killed the female with his staff. Tiresias was immediately turned into a woman,
and so remained until he was able to repeat the act with the male snake seven
years later. This staff later came into the possession of the god Hermes, along
with its transformative powers.
Another myth suggests that Hermes (or Mercury) saw two serpents entwined in
mortal combat. Separating them with his wand he brought about peace between
them, and as a result the wand with two serpents came to be seen as a sign of
peace.
In Rome, Livy
refers to the caduceator who
negotiated peace arrangements under the diplomatic protection of the caduceus he
carried.
Iconography
In some vase paintings ancient depictions of the Greek kerukeion are
somewhat different from the commonly seen modern representation. These
representations feature the two snakes atop the staff (or rod), crossed to
create a circle with the heads of the snakes resembling horns. This old graphic
form, with an additional crossbar to the staff, seems to have provided the basis
for the graphical
sign of Mercury
(☿) used in
Greek astrology
from Late Antiquity.
Use in alchemy
and occultism
As the symbol of both the
planet
and the
metal
named for Mercury, the caduceus became an
important symbol in
alchemy
.
The
crucified serpent
was also revived as an
alchemical symbol for
fixatio
, and
John Donne
(Sermons 10:190) uses
“crucified Serpent” as a title of
Jesus Christ
.
Symbol of commerce
A simplified variant of the caduceus is to be found in dictionaries,
indicating a “commercial term” entirely in keeping with the association of
Hermes with commerce. In this form the staff is often depicted with two winglets
attached and the snakes are omitted (or reduced to a small ring in the middle).
The Customs Service of the former
German Democratic Republic
employed the
caduceus, bringing its implied associations with thresholds, translators, and
commerce, in the service medals they issued their staff.
Misuse as symbol
of medicine
It is relatively common, especially in the United States, to find the
caduceus, with its two snakes and wings, used as a symbol of medicine instead of
the correct rod of Asclepius, with only a single snake. This usage is erroneous,
popularised largely as a result of the adoption of the caduceus as its insignia
by the
US Army medical corps
in 1902 at the insistence
of a single officer (though there are conflicting claims as to whether this was
Capt. Frederick P. Reynolds or Col. John R. van Hoff).
The rod of Asclepius is the dominant symbol for professional healthcare
associations in the United States. One survey found that 62% of professional
healthcare associations used the rod of Asclepius as their symbol. The same
survey found that 76% of commercial healthcare organizations used the Caduceus
symbol. The author of the study suggests the difference exists because
professional associations are more likely to have a real understanding of the
two symbols, whereas commercial organizations are more likely to be concerned
with the visual impact a symbol will have in selling their products.
The initial errors leading to its adoption and the continuing confusion it
generates are well known to medical historians. The long-standing and abundantly
attested historical associations of the caduceus with commerce, theft,
deception, and death are considered by many to be inappropriate in a symbol used
by those engaged in the healing arts. This has occasioned significant criticism
of the use of the caduceus in a medical context.
In
ancient Roman culture
, felicitas
(from the Latin
adjective
felix, “fruitful, blessed,
happy, lucky”) is a condition of divinely inspired productivity, blessedness, or
happiness
. Felicitas could encompass
both a woman’s fertility, and a general’s luck or good fortune. The divine
personification of Felicitas was
cultivated
as a goddess. Although felicitas
may be translated as “good luck,” and the goddess Felicitas shares some
characteristics and attributes with
Fortuna
, the two were distinguished in
Roman religion
.Fortuna was unpredictable and
her effects could be negative, as the existence of an altar to Mala Fortuna
(“Bad Luck”) acknowledges.Felicitas, however, always had a positive
significance. She appears with
several epithets that focus on aspects of her divine power.
Felicitas had a temple in Rome as early as the mid-2nd century BC, and during
the Republican era
was honored at two
official festivals
of
Roman state religion
, on July 1 in conjunction
with
Juno
and October 9 as Fausta Felicitas.
Felicitas continued to play an important role in
Imperial cult
, and was frequently portrayed on
coins
as a symbol of the wealth and prosperity
of the Roman Empire
. Her primary attributes are the
caduceus
and
cornucopia
.The English word “felicity” derives
from felicitas.
As virtue or quality
Phallic
relief
with the inscription “Felicitas
dwells here”
In its religious sense, felix means “blessed, under the protection or
favour of the gods; happy.” That which is felix has achieved the
pax divom
, a state of harmony or peace with
the divine world. The word derives from
Indo-European
*dhe(i)l, meaning “happy,
fruitful, productive, full of nourishment.” Related Latin words include
femina, “woman” (a person who provides nourishment or suckles); felo,
“to suckle” in regard to an infant; filius, “son” (a person suckled); and
probably fello, fellare, “to perform
fellatio
“, with an originally non-sexual
meaning of “to suck”. The continued magical association of sexual potency,
increase, and general good fortune in productivity is indicated by the
inscription Hic habitat Felicitas (“Felicitas dwells here”)[8]
on an
apotropaic
relief of a
phallus
at a bakery in
Pompeii
.
In archaic Roman culture, felicitas was a quality expressing the close
bonds between
religion and agriculture
. Felicitas was
at issue when the
suovetaurilia
sacrifice conducted by
Cato the Elder
as
censor
in 184 BC was challenged as having been
unproductive, perhaps for
vitium
, ritual error. In the following
three years Rome had been plagued by a number of ill omens and prodigies (prodigia),
such as severe storms, pestilence, and “showers of blood,” which had required a
series of expiations (supplicationes).
The speech Cato gave to justify himself is known as the Oratio de lustri sui
felicitate, “Speech on the Felicitas of his
Lustrum
“, and survives only as a possible
quotation by a later source. Cato says that a lustrum should be found to
have produced felicitas “if the crops had filled up the storehouses, if
the vintage had been abundant, if the olive oil had flowed deliberately from the
groves”, regardless of whatever else might have occurred. The efficacy of a
ritual might be thus expressed as its felicitas.
The ability to promote felicitas became proof of one’s excellence and
divine favor. Felicitas was simultaneously a divine gift, a quality that
resided within an individual, and a contagious capacity for generating
productive conditions outside oneself: it was a form of “charismatic
authority”. Cicero
lists felicitas as one of the
four virtues of the exemplary general, along with knowledge of
military science
(scientia rei militaris),
virtus
(both “valor” and “virtue”), and
auctoritas
, “authority.” Virtus was
a regular complement to felicitas, which was not thought to attach to
those who were unworthy. Cicero attributed felicitas particularly to
Pompeius Magnus (“Pompey the Great”)
, and
distinguished this felicitas even from the divine good luck enjoyed by
successful generals such as
Fabius Maximus
,
Marcellus
,
Scipio the Younger
and
Marius
.
The sayings (sententiae) of
Publilius Syrus
are often attached to divine
qualities, including Felicitas: “The people’s Felicitas is powerful when she is
merciful” (potens misericors publica est Felicitas).
Epithets
Epithets
of Felicitas include:
Augusta
, the goddess in her association
with the emperor and
Imperial cult
.- Fausta (“Favored, Fortunate”), a state divinity
cultivated
on October 9 in conjunction with
Venus Victrix
and the Genius Populi
Romani (“Genius”
of the Roman People, also known as the Genius Publicus).
- Publica, the “public” Felicitas; that is, the aspect of the
divine force that was concerned with the res publica or commonwealth,
or with the Roman People (Populus Romanus).
- Temporum, the Felicitas “of the times”, a title which emphasize
the felicitas being experienced in current circumstances.
Republic
The
cult
of Felicitas is first recorded in the
mid-2nd century BC, when a
temple
was dedicated to her by
Lucius Licinius Lucullus
, grandfather of the
famous Lucullus
, using booty from his military
campaigns in
Spain
in 151–150 BC. Predecessor to a noted
connoisseur of art, Lucullus obtained and dedicated several statues looted by
Mummius
from
Greece
, including works by
Praxiteles
: the Thespiades, a statue
group of the
Muses
brought from
Thespiae
, and a
Venus
. This Temple of Felicitas was among
several that had a secondary function as art museums, and was recommended by
Cicero
along with the
Fortuna Huiusce
DieiTemple of
for those who enjoyed viewing art but lacked the means to
amass private collections. The temple was located in the
Velabrum
in the
Vicus Tuscus
of the
Campus Martius
, along a route associated with
triumphs
: the axle of
Julius Caesar
‘s triumphal
chariot
in 46 BC is supposed to have broken in
front of it. The temple was destroyed by a fire during the reign of
Claudius
, though the Muses were rescued. It was
not rebuilt at this site.
Sulla identified himself so closely with the quality of felicitcas
that he adopted the
agnomen
(nickname) Felix. His
domination as
dictator
resulted from civil war and
unprecedented military violence within the city of Rome itself, but he
legitimated his authority by claiming that the mere fact of his victory was
proof he was felix and enjoyed the divine favor of the gods. Republican
precedent was to regard a victory as belonging to the Roman people as a whole,
as represented by the
triumphal procession
at which the honored
general submitted public offerings at the
Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus
at the
Capitol
, and Sulla thus established an
important theological element for the later authority of the emperor. Although
he established no new temple for Felicitas, he celebrated games (ludi
circenses) in her honor.
On July 1 and October 9, Felicitas received a sacrifice in Capitolio,
on the
Capitoline Hill
, on the latter date as
Fausta Felicitas in conjunction with the
Genius Publicus
(“Public
Genius
“) and
Venus Victrix
. These observances probably took
place at an altar or small shrine (aedicula),
not a separate
temple precinct
. The
Acts of the Arval Brothers
(1st century AD)
prescribe a cow as the sacrifice for Felicitas. Pompey established a shrine for
Felicitas at
his new theater and temple complex
, which used
the steps to the Temple of Venus Victrix as seating. Felicitas was cultivated
with Honor
and Virtue, and she may have shared her
shrine there with
Victory
, as she did in the Imperial era as
Felicitas Caesaris (Caesar’s Felicitas) at
Ameria
. Pompey’s collocation of deities may
have been intended to parallel the Capitoline grouping.
A fourth cult site for Felicitas in Rome had been planned by Caesar, and
possibly begun before his death. Work on the temple was finished by
Lepidus
on the site of the
Curia Hostilia
, which had been restored by
Sulla, destroyed by fire in 52 BC, and demolished by Caesar in 44 BC. This
temple seems not to have existed by the time of
Hadrian
. Its site probably lies under the
church of
Santi Luca e Martina
. v It has been
suggested that an
Ionic capital
and a
tufa wall uncovered at the site are the only known remains of the
temple.
Felicitas was a
watchword
used by Julius Caesar’s troops at the
Battle of Thapsus
, the names of deities and
divine personifications being often recorded for this purpose in the late
Republic.
Felicitas Iulia
(“Julian Felicitas”) was
the name of a
colony
in
Roman Spain
that was refounded under Caesar and
known also as Olisipo
, present-day
Lisbon
, Portugal.
During the Republic, only divine personifications known to have had a temple
or public altar were featured on coins, among them Felicitas. On the only extant
Republican coin type, Felicitas appears as a bust and wearing a
diadem
.
Empire
Felicitas Temporum represented by a pair of cornucopiae on a
denarius
(193-194 AD) issued under
Pescennius Niger
A calendar from Cumae
records that a
supplicatio
was celebrated on April 16 for
the Felicitas of the Empire, in honor of the day
Augustus
was first acclaimed
imperator
. In extant Roman coinage,
Felicitas appears with a
caduceus
only during the Imperial period. The
earliest known example is Felicitas Publica on a
dupondius
issued under
Galba
. Felicitas Temporum (“Prosperity
of the Times”), reflecting a
Golden Age
ideology, was among the innovative
virtues that began to appear during the reigns of
Trajan
and
Antoninus Pius
.
Septimius Severus
, whose reign followed the
exceedingly brief tenure of
Pertinax
and unsatisfactory conditions under
Commodus
, used coinage to express his efforts
toward restoring the
Pax Romana
, with themes such as Felicitas
Temporum and Felicitas Saeculi, “Prosperity of the Age” (saeculum),
prevalent in the years 200 to 202. Some Imperial coins use these phrases with
images of women and children in the emperor’s family.
When the Empire came under Christian rule, the personified virtues that had
been cultivated as deities could be treated as abstract concepts. Felicitas
Perpetua Saeculi (“Perpetual Blessedness of the Age”) appears on a coin
issued under
Constantine
, the first emperor to convert to
Christianity.
VALERIAN I
Augustus:
A.D. 253-260 with Gallienus
Husband of Mariniana
Father of Gallienus
Grandfather of Valerian II and Saloninus
Publius Licinius Valerianus (c. 200 – after 260),
commonly known in
English
as Valerian or Valerian I,
was the
Roman Emperor
from 253 to 260.
Unlike the majority of the pretenders during the
Crisis of the Third Centuryy
, Valerian was of a
noble and traditional
senatorial
family. Details of his early life
are elusive, but for his marriage to
Egnatia Mariniana
, who gave him two sons: later
emperor Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus
and
Valerianus Minor
.
In 238 he was
princeps senatus
, and
Gordian I
negotiated through him for Senatorial
acknowledgement for his claim as emperor. In 251, when
Decius
revived the censorship with legislative
and executive powers so extensive that it practically embraced the civil
authority of the emperor, Valerian was chosen
censor
by the Senate, though he declined to
accept the post. Under Decius he was nominated governor of the
Rhine
provinces of
Noricum
and
Raetia
and retained the confidence of his
successor,
Trebonianus Gallus
, who asked him for
reinforcements to quell the rebellion of
Aemilianus
Rule and fall
Valerian’s first act as emperor was to make his son Gallienus
his colleague. In the beginning of his reign the affairs in Europe went from bad
to worse and the whole West fell into disorder. In the East,
Antioch
had fallen into the hands of a
Sassanid
vassal,
Armenia
was occupied by
Shapur I
(Sapor). Valerian and Gallienus split
the problems of the empire between the two, with the son taking the West and the
father heading East to face the
Persian
threat.
By 257, Valerian had already recovered Antioch and returned
the province of
Syria
to Roman control but in the following
year, the Goths
ravaged
Asia Minor
. Later in 259, he moved to
Edessa
, but an outbreak of
plague
killed a critical number of
legionaries
, weakening the Roman position in
Edessa which was then besieged by the Persians. At the beginning of 260,
Valerian was defeated in the
Battle of Edessa
and he arranged a meeting with
Shapur to negotiate a peace settlement. The ceasefire was betrayed by Shapur who
seized him and held him prisoner for the remainder of his life. Valerian’s
capture was a humiliating defeat for the Romans.
Gibbon
, in
The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
describes Valerian’s fate:
The voice of history, which is often little more than the
organ of hatred or flattery, reproaches Sapor with a proud abuse of the
rights of conquest. We are told that Valerian, in chains, but invested with
the Imperial purple, was exposed to the multitude, a constant spectacle of
fallen greatness; and that whenever the Persian monarch mounted on
horseback, he placed his foot on the neck of a Roman emperor.
Notwithstanding all the remonstrances of his allies, who repeatedly advised
him to remember the vicissitudes of fortune, to dread the returning power of
Rome, and to make his illustrious captive the pledge of peace, not the
object of insult, Sapor still remained inflexible. When Valerian sunk under
the weight of shame and grief, his skin, stuffed with straw, and formed into
the likeness of a human figure, was preserved for ages in the most
celebrated temple of Persia; a more real monument of triumph, than the
fancied trophies of brass and marble so often erected by Roman vanity. The
tale is moral and pathetic, but the truth of it may very fairly be called in
question. The letters still extant from the princes of the East to Sapor are
manifest forgeries; nor is it natural to suppose that a jealous monarch
should, even in the person of a rival, thus publicly degrade the majesty of
kings. Whatever treatment the unfortunate Valerian might experience in
Persia, it is at least certain that the only emperor of Rome who had ever
fallen into the hands of the enemy, languished away his life in hopeless
captivity.
Valerian’s massacre of 258
According to the
Catholic Encyclopedia
article on
Valerian
:
Pope Sixtus
was seized on 6 August, 258, in
one of the Catacombs and was put to death;
Cyprian of Carthage
suffered martyrdom on
14 September. Another celebrated martyr was the Roman deacon
St. Lawrence
. In Spain Bishop
Fructuosus of Tarragona
and his two deacons
were put to death on 21 January, 259. There were also executions in the
eastern provinces (Eusebius, VII, xii). Taken altogether, however, the
repressions were limited to scattered spots and had no great success..
Death in captivity
An early Christian source,
Lactantius
, maintained that for some time prior
to his death Valerian was subjected to the greatest insults by his captors, such
as being used as a human footstool by Shapur when mounting his horse. According
to this version of events, after a long period of such treatment Valerian
offered Shapur a huge ransom for his release. In reply, according to one
version, Shapur was said to have forced Valerian to swallow molten gold (the
other version of his death is almost the same but it says that Valerian was
killed by being flayed alive) and then had the unfortunate Valerian skinned and
his skin stuffed with straw and preserved as a trophy in the main Persian
temple. It was further alleged by Lactantius that it was only after a later
Persian defeat against Rome that his skin was given a cremation and burial. The
role of a Chinese prince held hostage by Shapur I, in the events following the
death of Valerian has been frequently debated by historians, without reaching
any definitive conclusion.
Some modern scholars believe that, contrary to Lactantius’
account, Shapur I
sent Valerian and some of his army to
the city of Bishapur
where they lived in relatively good
condition. Shapur used the remaining soldiers in engineering and development
plans. Band-e Kaisar (Caesar’s dam) is one of the remnants of Roman
engineering located near the ancient city of
Susa. In all the stone carvings on Naghshe-Rostam, in Iran, Valerian
is respected by holding hands with Shapur I, in sign of submission.
It is generally supposed that some of
Lactantius
‘ account is motivated by his desire
to establish that persecutors of the Christians died fitting deaths; the story
was repeated then and later by authors in the Roman Near East “fiercely hostile”
to Persia.
Other modern scholars tend to give at least some credence to
Lactantius’ account.
Valerian and Gallienus’ joint rule was threatened several
times by
usurpers
. Despite several usurpation attempts,
Gallienus secured the throne until his own assassination in 268.
Owing to imperfect and often contradictory sources, the
chronology and details of this reign are very uncertain.
.
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