Vespasian – Roman Emperor: 69-79 A.D. –
Silver Denarius 17mm (1.94 grams) Rome mint: 70 A.D.
Reference: RIC 10, S 2285
IMPCAESARVESPASIANVSAVG – Laureate head right.
COSITERTRPOT – Pax seated left, holding branch and caduceus.
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Authenticity.
The caduceus from
Greek
“herald’s staff” is the staff carried by
Hermes
in
Greek mythology
. The same staff was also borne
by heralds in general, for example by
Iris
, the messenger of
Hera. It is a short staff entwined by two
serpents
, sometimes surmounted by wings. In
Roman iconography it was often depicted being carried in the left hand of
Mercury
, the messenger of the gods, guide of
the dead and protector of merchants, shepherds, gamblers, liars, and thieves.
As a symbolic object it represents Hermes (or the Roman Mercury), and by
extension trades, occupations or undertakings associated with the god. In later
Antiquity
the caduceus provided the basis for
the
astrological symbol
representing the
planet Mercury
. Thus, through its use in
astrology
and
alchemy
, it has come to denote the
elemental metal
of the same name.
By extension of its association with Mercury/Hermes, the caduceus is also a
recognized symbol of commerce and negotiation, two realms in which balanced
exchange and reciprocity are recognized as ideals.[4][5]
This association is ancient, and consistent from the Classical period to modern
times. The caduceus is also used as a symbol representing printing, again by
extension of the attributes of Mercury (in this case associated with writing and
eloquence).
The caduceus is sometimes mistakenly used
as a symbol of medicine and/or medical practice
,
especially in
North America
, because of widespread confusion
with the traditional medical symbol, the
rod of Asclepius
, which has only a single snake
and no wings.
The term kerukeion denoted any herald’s staff, not necessarily
associated with Hermes in particular.[7]
Lewis Richard Farnell
(1909) in his study of
the cult of Hermes assumed that the two snakes had simply developed out of
ornaments of the shepherd’s crook used by heralds as their staff.[8]
This view has been rejected by later authors pointing to parallel iconography in
the Ancient Near East. It has been argued that the staff or wand entwined by two
snakes was itself representing a god in the pre-anthropomorphic era. Like the
herm
or
priapus
, it would thus be a predecessor of the
anthropomorphic Hermes of the classical era.
Ancient Near East
William Hayes Ward
(1910) discovered that
symbols similar to the classical caduceus sometimes appeared on
Mesopotamian cylinder seals
. He suggested the
symbol originated some time between 3000 and 4000 BCE, and that it might have
been the source of the Greek caduceus.[10]
A.L. Frothingham incorporated Dr. Ward’s research into his own work, published
in 1916, in which he suggested that the prototype of Hermes was an “Oriental
deity of Babylonian extraction” represented in his earliest form as a snake god.
From this perspective, the caduceus was originally representative of Hermes
himself, in his early form as the Underworld god
Ningishzida
, “messenger” of the “Earth Mother”.[11]
The caduceus is mentioned in passing by
Walter Burkert
[12]
as “really the image of copulating snakes taken over from Ancient Near Eastern
tradition”.
In Egyptian iconography, the
Djed pillar is depicted as containing a snake in a frieze of the
Dendera Temple complex
.
The rod of Moses
and the
brazen serpent
are frequently compared to the
caduceus, especially as Moses is acting as a messenger of God to the
Pharaoh
at the point in the narrative where he
changes his staff into a serpent.[13]
Classical antiquity
Mythology
The
Homeric hymn
to Hermes relates how Hermes
offered his lyre fashioned from a tortoise shell as compensation for the
cattle he stole
from his half brother
Apollo
. Apollo in return gave Hermes the
caduceus as a gesture of friendship.[14]
The association with the serpent thus connects Hermes to
Apollo
, as later the serpent was associated
with Asclepius
, the “son of Apollo”.[15]
The association of Apollo with the serpent is a continuation of the older
Indo-European
dragon
-slayer motif.
Wilhelm Heinrich Roscher
(1913) pointed out
that the serpent as an attribute of both Hermes and Asclepius is a variant of
the “pre-historic semi-chthonic serpent hero known at Delphi as
Python
“, who in classical mythology is slain by
Apollo.[16]
One Greek myth of origin
of the caduceus is part of the
story of Tiresias
,[17]
who found two snakes copulating and killed the female with his staff. Tiresias
was immediately turned into a woman, and so remained until he was able to repeat
the act with the male snake seven years later. This staff later came into the
possession of the god Hermes, along with its transformative powers.
Another myth suggests that Hermes (or Mercury) saw two serpents entwined in
mortal combat. Separating them with his wand he brought about peace between
them, and as a result the wand with two serpents came to be seen as a sign of
peace.[18]
In Rome, Livy
refers to the caduceator who
negotiated peace arrangements under the diplomatic protection of the caduceus he
carried.
Iconography
In some vase paintings ancient depictions of the Greek kerukeion are
somewhat different from the commonly seen modern representation. These
representations feature the two snakes atop the staff (or rod), crossed to
create a circle with the heads of the snakes resembling horns. This old graphic
form, with an additional crossbar to the staff, seems to have provided the basis
for the graphical
sign of Mercury
(☿) used in
Greek astrology
from Late Antiquity.[19]
Use in alchemy
and occultism
As the symbol of both the
planet
and the
metal
named for Mercury, the caduceus became an
important symbol in
alchemy
.
The
crucified serpent
was also revived as an
alchemical symbol for
fixatio
, and
John Donne
(Sermons 10:190) uses
“crucified Serpent” as a title of
Jesus Christ
.
Symbol of commerce
A simplified variant of the caduceus is to be found in dictionaries,
indicating a “commercial term” entirely in keeping with the association of
Hermes with commerce. In this form the staff is often depicted with two winglets
attached and the snakes are omitted (or reduced to a small ring in the middle).[20]
The Customs Service of the former
German Democratic Republic
employed the
caduceus, bringing its implied associations with thresholds, translators, and
commerce, in the service medals they issued their staff.
Misuse as symbol
of medicine
It is relatively common, especially in the United States, to find the
caduceus, with its two snakes and wings, used as a symbol of medicine instead of
the correct rod of Asclepius, with only a single snake. This usage is erroneous,
popularised largely as a result of the adoption of the caduceus as its insignia
by the
US Army medical corps
in 1902 at the insistence
of a single officer (though there are conflicting claims as to whether this was
Capt. Frederick P. Reynolds or Col. John R. van Hoff).
The rod of Asclepius is the dominant symbol for professional healthcare
associations in the United States. One survey found that 62% of professional
healthcare associations used the rod of Asclepius as their symbol.[23]
The same survey found that 76% of commercial healthcare organizations used the
Caduceus symbol. The author of the study suggests the difference exists because
professional associations are more likely to have a real understanding of the
two symbols, whereas commercial organizations are more likely to be concerned
with the visual impact a symbol will have in selling their products.
The initial errors leading to its adoption and the continuing confusion it
generates are well known to medical historians. The long-standing and abundantly
attested historical associations of the caduceus with commerce, theft,
deception, and death are considered by many to be inappropriate in a symbol used
by those engaged in the healing arts.[22]
This has occasioned significant criticism of the use of the caduceus in a
medical context.
In
Roman mythology
, Pax (Latin
for peace
)
(her
Greek
equivalent was
Eirene
) was recognized as a
goddess
during the rule of
Augustus
.
On the
Campus Martius
, she had a temple called the
Ara Pacis
,
and another temple on the
Forum Pacis
. She was depicted in art with
olive
branches, a
cornucopia
and a scepter. There was a festival in her honor on January 3. Daughter of
Jupiter
and
Iustitia
. Pax was often associated with spring.
Titus Flavius Vespasianus, known in English as Vespasian (November
17 9
AD –
June 23
79AD), was a
Roman
Emperor
who reigned from 69 AD until his death in 79 AD. Vespasian was the
founder of the short-lived
Flavian dynasty
, which ruled the
Roman
Empire
between 69 AD and 96 AD He was succeeded by his sons
Titus
(79–81) and
Domitian
(81–96).
Vespasian descended from a family of
equestrians
which rose into the
senatorial
rank under the emperors of the
Julio-Claudian dynasty
. Although he attained the
standard succession
of public offices, holding the
consulship
in 51, Vespasian became more reputed as a successful military
commander, partaking in the
Roman invasion of Britain
in 43, and subjugating the
Judaea province
during the
Jewish rebellion
of 66. While Vespasian was preparing to besiege the city of
Jerusalem
during the latter campaign, emperor
Nero committed
suicide, plunging the Roman Empire into a year of
civil war
known as the
Year of the Four Emperors
. After
Galba
and
Otho perished in
quick succession,
Vitellius
became emperor in mid 69. In response, the armies in
Egypt
and Judaea themselves declared Vespasian emperor on
July 1
. In his
bid for imperial power, Vespasian joined forces with
Gaius Licinius Mucianus
, the governor of
Syria
, who led
the Flavian forces against Vitellius, while Vespasian himself gained control
over Egypt. On
December
20
, Vitellius was defeated, and the following day, Vespasian was
declared emperor by the
Roman
Senate
.
Little factual information survives about Vespasian’s government during the
ten years he was emperor. His reign is best known for financial reforms
following the demise of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, the successful campaign
against Judaea, and several ambitious construction projects such as the
Colosseum
.
Upon his death on
June 23
,
79, he was
succeeded by his eldest son Titus.
//
Family
and early career
Vespasian was born in
Falacrina
, in the
Sabine
country
near Reate. His father,
Titus Flavius Sabinus
, was an
equestrian
who worked as a
customs
official in the province of
Asia
and a money-lender on a small scale in
Aventicum
,
where Vespasian lived for some time. His mother,
Vespasia Polla
, was the sister of a
Senator
.
After prompting from his mother, Vespasian followed his older brother, also
called
Titus Flavius Sabinus
, into public life. He served in the army as a military
tribune
in
Thrace
in 36.
The following year he was elected
quaestor
and served in Crete
and Cyrene
. He rose through the ranks of Roman public office, being elected
aedile
on his
second attempt in 39 and
praetor
on
his first attempt in 40, taking the opportunity to ingratiate himself with the
Emperor Caligula
.
In the meantime, he married
Domitilla the Elder
, the daughter of an equestrian from Ferentium. They had
two sons, Titus
Flavius Vespasianus
(b. 41) and
Titus Flavius
Domitianus
(b. 51), and a daughter,
Domitilla
(b. 39). Domitilla died before Vespasian became emperor.
Thereafter his mistress,
Caenis
, was his
wife in all but name until she died in 74.
Upon the accession of
Claudius
as
emperor in 41, Vespasian was appointed
legate
of
Augusta Legio II
, stationed in
Germania
,
thanks to the influence of the Imperial
freedman
Narcissus
.
Invasion
of Britannia
In 43, Vespasian and the II Augusta participated in the
Roman invasion of Britain
, and he distinguished himself under the overall
command of
Aulus Plautius
. After participating in crucial early battles on the rivers
Medway
and Thames
, he was sent to reduce the south west, penetrating through the modern
counties of Hampshire
,
Wiltshire
,
Dorset
,
Somerset
,
Devon
and
Cornwall
with the probable objectives of securing the south coast ports and harbours
along with the tin mines of Cornwall and the silver and lead mines of Somerset.
Vespasian marched from
Noviomagus Reginorum
(Chichester)
to subdue the hostile
Durotriges
and Dumnonii
tribes
[1]
,
captured twenty oppida (towns, or more probably
hill forts
,
including Hod
Hill
and
Maiden Castle
in
Dorset
). He
also invaded Vectis
(the Isle of Wight
), finally setting up a fortress and legionary headquarters at
Isca Dumnoniorum
(Exeter).
These successes earned him triumphal regalia (ornamenta triumphalia) on
his return to Rome.
Continued
political career
Vespasian was elected
consul
for the
last two months of 51, after which he withdrew from public life. He came out of
retirement in 63 when he was sent as governor to
Africa Province
. According to
Tacitus
(ii.97), his rule was “infamous and odious” but according to
Suetonius
(Vesp. 4), he was “upright and, highly honourable”. On one
occasion he was pelted with
turnips
.
Vespasian used his time in North Africa wisely. Usually governorships were seen
by ex-consuls as opportunities to extort huge amounts of money to regain their
wealth that they had spent on their previous political campaigns. Corruption was
so rife, that it was almost expected that a governor would come back from these
appointments with his pockets full. However, Vespasian used his time in North
Africa making friends instead of money; something that would be far more
valuable in the years to come. During his time in North Africa, he found himself
in financial difficulties and was forced to mortgage his estates to his brother.
To revive his fortunes he turned to the
mule trade and
gained the nickname mulio (mule-driver).
Returning from Africa, Vespasian toured
Greece
in
Nero‘s retinue, but
lost Imperial favour after paying insufficient attention (some sources suggest
he fell asleep) during one of the Emperor’s recitals on the
lyre, and found
himself in the political wilderness.
Great
Jewish Revolt
However, in 66, Vespasian was appointed to conduct the
war
in Judea
.
A revolt there had killed the previous governor and routed
Licinius
Mucianus
, the governor of
Syria
, when he tried to restore order. Two legions, with eight cavalry
squadrons and 10 auxiliary cohorts, were therefore dispatched under the command
of Vespasian to add to the one already there. His elder son, Titus, served on
his staff. During this time he became the patron of
Flavius Josephus
, a Jewish
resistance leader turned Roman agent who would go on to write his
people’s history in
Greek
. In the end, thousands of Jews were killed and many towns destroyed by
the Romans, who successfully re-established control over Judea. They took
Jerusalem in 70
. He is
remembered by Jews as a fair and humane official, in contrast to the notorious
Herod the Great
.
Josephus
wrote that after the Roman
Legio X Fretensis
accompanied by Vespasian destroyed Jericho on
June 21
,
68, he took a
group of Jews who could not swim (possibly
Essenes
from
Qumran
),
fettered them, and threw them into the
Dead Sea
to
test its legendary
buoyancy
.
Sure enough, the Jews shot back up after being thrown in from boats and floated
calmly on top of the sea.
Year
of Four Emperors
Main article:
Year of the Four Emperors
Map of the Roman Empire during the
Year of the Four Emperors
(69 AD). Blue areas indicate provinces
loyal to Vespasian and
Gaius Licinius Mucianus
.
After the death of Nero in 68, Rome saw a succession of short-lived emperors
and a year of civil wars
. Galba
was murdered by Otho
,
who was defeated by
Vitellius
.
Otho’s supporters, looking for another candidate to support, settled on
Vespasian.
According to Suetonius, a prophecy ubiquitous in the Eastern provinces
claimed that from Judaea would come the future rulers of the world. Vespasian
eventually believed that this prophecy applied to him, and found a number of
omens,
oracles
, and
portents
that reinforced this belief .
He also found encouragement in Mucianus, the governor of Syria; and, although
Vespasian was a strict disciplinarian and reformer of abuses, Vespasian’s
soldiers were thoroughly devoted to him. All eyes in the East were now upon him.
Mucianus and the Syrian legions were eager to support him. While he was at
Caesarea
, he was proclaimed emperor (July
1, 69
),
first by the army in Egypt
under
Tiberius Julius Alexander
, and then by his troops in Judaea (July 11
according to Suetonius, July 3 according to Tacitus).
Nevertheless,
Vitellius
,
the occupant of the throne, had Rome’s best troops on his side — the veteran
legions of Gaul
and
the Rhineland
.
But the feeling in Vespasian’s favour quickly gathered strength, and the armies
of Moesia
,
Pannonia
,
and
Illyricum
soon declared for him, and made him the de facto master of
half of the Roman world.
While Vespasian himself was in Egypt securing its
grain supply
, his troops entered Italy from the northeast under the
leadership of
M. Antonius Primus
. They defeated Vitellius’s army (which had awaited him in
Mevania
) at
Bedriacum
(or Betriacum), sacked
Cremona
and
advanced on Rome. They entered Rome after furious fighting. In the resulting
confusion, the Capitol was destroyed by fire and Vespasian’s brother Sabinus was
killed by a mob.
On receiving the tidings of his rival’s defeat and death at
Alexandria
,
the new emperor at once forwarded supplies of urgently needed grain to Rome,
along with an edict or a declaration of policy, in which he gave assurance of an
entire reversal of the laws of Nero, especially those relating to
treason
.
While in Egypt he visited the Temple of
Serapis
,
where reportedly he experienced a
vision
. Later he was confronted by two labourers who were convinced that he
possessed a divine power that could work
miracles
.
Vespasian
as emperor
Aftermath
of the civil war
Bust of Vespasian,
Pushkin Museum
,
Moscow
.
Vespasian was declared emperor by the Senate while he was in Egypt in
December of 69 (the Egyptians had declared him emperor in June of 69). In the
short-term, administration of the empire was given to
Mucianus
who was aided by Vespasian’s son,
Domitian
.
Mucianus started off Vespasian’s rule with tax reform that was to restore the
empire’s finances. After Vespasian arrived in Rome in mid-70, Mucianus continued
to press Vespasian to collect as many taxes as possible.
Vespasian and Mucianus renewed old taxes and instituted new ones, increased
the tribute of the provinces, and kept a watchful eye upon the treasury
officials. The Latin
proverb
“Pecunia
non olet” (“Money does not smell”) may have been created when he had
introduced a
urine tax
on public toilets. By his own example of simplicity of life — he
caused something of a scandal when it was made known he took his own boots off —
he initiated a marked improvement in the general tone of society in many
respects.
In early 70, Vespasian was still in Egypt, the source of Rome’s grain supply,
and had not yet left for Rome. According to
Tacitus
, his
trip was delayed due to bad weather.
Modern historians theorize that Vespasian had been and was continuing to
consolidate support from the Egyptians before departing.
Stories of a divine Vespasian healing people circulated in Egypt.
During this period, protests erupted in Alexandria over his new tax policies and
grain shipments were held up. Vespasian eventually restored order and grain
shipments to Rome resumed.
In addition to the uprising in Egypt, unrest and civil war continued in the
rest of the empire in 70. In Judea, rebellion had continued from 66. Vespasian’s
son, Titus
,
finally subdued the rebellion with the capture of Jerusalem and destruction of
the
Jewish Temple
in 70. According to
Eusebius
, Vespasian then ordered all descendants of the royal line of
David
to be
hunted down, causing the Jews to be persecuted from province to province.
Several modern historians have suggested that Vespasian, already having been
told by Josephus that he was prophesied to become emperor whilst in Judaea, was
probably reacting to other widely-known Messianic prophecies circulating at the
time, to suppress any rival claimants arising from that dynasty.
In January of the same year, an uprising occurred in
Gaul and Germany,
known as the second
Batavian Rebellion
. This rebellion was headed by
Gaius Julius Civilis
and
Julius Sabinus
. Sabinus, claiming he was descended from
Julius Caesar
, declared himself emperor of Gaul. The rebellion defeated and
absorbed two Roman legions before it was suppressed by Vespasian’s
brother-in-law,
Quintus Petillius Cerialis
, by the end of 70.
Arrival
in Rome and gathering support
In mid-70, Vespasian first came to Rome. Vespasian immediately embarked on a
series of efforts to stay in power and prevent future revolts. He offered gifts
to many in the military and much of the public.
Soldiers loyal to Vitellius were dismissed or punished.
He also restructured the Senatorial and Equestrian orders, removing his enemies
and adding his allies.
Regional autonomy of Greek provinces was repealed.
Additionally, he made significant attempts to control public perception of his
rule.
Propaganda
campaign
Many modern historians note the increased amount of propaganda that appeared
during Vespasian’s reign.
Stories of a supernatural emperor who was destined to rule circulated in the
empire.
Nearly one-third of all coins minted in Rome under Vespasian celebrated military
victory or peace.
The word vindex was removed from coins so as not to remind the public of
rebellious Vindex
.
Construction projects bore inscriptions praising Vespasian and condemning
previous emperors.
A temple of peace was constructed in the forum as well.
Vespasian approved histories written under his reign, ensuring biases against
him were removed.
Vespasian also gave financial rewards to ancient writers.
The ancient historians who lived through the period such as
Tacitus
,
Suetonius
,
Josephus
and
Pliny the Elder
speak suspiciously well of Vespasian while condemning the
emperors who came before him.
Tacitus admits that his status was elevated by Vespasian, Josephus identifies
Vespasian as a patron and savior, and Pliny dedicated his Natural Histories
to Vespasian, Titus.
Those who spoke against Vespasian were punished. A number of stoic
philosophers were accused of corrupting students with inappropriate teachings
and were expelled from Rome.
Helvidius Priscus
, a pro-republic philosopher, was executed for his
teachings.
Construction
and conspiracies
Construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the
Colosseum
, was begun by Vespasian, and ultimately finished by
his son Titus.
Between 71 and 79, much of Vespasian’s reign is a mystery. Historians report
that Vespasian ordered the construction of several buildings in Rome.
Additionally, he survived several conspiracies against him.
Vespasian helped rebuild Rome after the civil war. He added the temple of
Peace and the temple to the Deified Claudius.
In 75, he erected a colossal statue of
Apollo
, begun
under Nero
, and he
dedicated a stage of the theater of Marcellus. He also began construction of the
Colosseum.
Suetonius claims that Vespasian was met with “constant conspiracies” against
him.
Only one conspiracy is known specifically, though. In 78 or 79, Eprius Marcellus
and
Aulus Caecina Alienus
attempted to kill Vespasian. Why these men turned
against Vespasian is not known.
Military
pursuits and death
In 78,
Agricola
was sent to
Britain
, and both extended and consolidated the Roman dominion in that
province, pushing his way into what is now
Scotland
.
On June 23 of the following year, Vespasian was on his deathbed and expiring
rapidly, he demanded that he be helped to stand as he believed “An emperor
should die on his feet”. He died of an intestinal inflammation which led to
excessive diarrhea
. His purported great wit can be glimpsed from his last words; Væ,
puto deus fio, “Damn. I am already
becoming a god
!”
Views
on Vespasian
Vespasian was known for his wit and his amiable manner alongside his
commanding persona and military prowess. He could be liberal to impoverished
Senators and equestrians and to cities and towns desolated by natural calamity.
He was especially generous to men of letters and
rhetors
, several of whom he pensioned with salaries of as much as 1,000 gold
pieces a year.
Quintilian
is said to have been the first public teacher who enjoyed this imperial favor.
Pliny the Elder
‘s work, the
Natural History
, was written during Vespasian’s reign, and dedicated to
Vespasian’s son Titus.
Vespasian distrusted philosophers in general, viewing them as unmanly
complainers who talked too much. It was the idle talk of philosophers, who liked
to glorify the good times of the
Republic
, that provoked Vespasian into reviving the obsolete penal laws
against this profession as a precautionary measure. Only one however,
Helvidius Priscus
, was put to death, and he had repeatedly affronted the
Emperor by studied insults which Vespasian had initially tried to ignore, “I
will not kill a dog that barks at me,” were his words on discovering Priscus’s
public slander.
Vespasian was indeed noted for mildness when dealing with political
opposition. According to Suetonius, he bore the frank language of his friends,
the quips of pleaders, and the impudence of the philosophers with the greatest
patience. Though Licinius Mucianus, a man of notorious unchastity, presumed upon
his services to treat Vespasian with scant respect, he never had the heart to
criticize him except privately and then only to the extent of adding to a
complaint made to a common friend, the significant words: “I at least, am a
man.”
He was also noted for his benefactions to the people, much money was spent on
public works and the restoration and beautification of Rome: a new forum, the
Temple of Peace, the public baths and the great show piece, the
Colosseum
.
In the modern
Italian language
, the urinals are called “vespasiano”, probably in reference
to a tax the emperor placed on urine collection (useful due to its ammoniac
content; see
Pay toilet
).
In
later literature
-
Marcus Didius Falco
novels
-
The Course of Honour, a novel by
Lindsey Davis
-
Edward Rutherfurd
‘s
historical fiction
novel
Sarum
contains an account of one the protagonists’ (a
Celtic
chief)
meeting Vespasian during his campaign through southern Britannia.
-
Vespasian, as legate under
Aulus Plautius
, is a regular secondary character in
Simon Scarrow
‘s
Eaglegle
series.
|