Name: Alexander the Great under half brother PHILIP III Small RARE Greek Coin i21941
SKU: i21941
Price: 777.33 USD
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Item: i21941

Authentic Ancient

Coin of:

Greek – Philip III, Arrhidaeus – King of Macedonia: 323-317
B.C.
Bronze 11mm (1.34 grams) Struck 323-317 B.C.
Head of Alexander the Great as Hercules right, wearing the lion-skin headdress.

ΦΙΛΙΠ / ΠΟΥ
above and below club of Hercules right, spearhead above.

* Numismatic Note: Small,
possibly unpublished coin in fantastic condition
with beautiful glossy black
patina.

You are bidding on the exact item pictured,

provided with a Certificate of Authenticity and Lifetime Guarantee of

Authenticity.

Hercules is the Roman name for the Greek
divine

hero Heracles
, who was the son of

Zeus (Roman equivalent
Jupiter
) and the mortal
Alcmene
. In
classical mythology
, Hercules is famous for his
strength and for his numerous far-ranging adventures.

The Romans adapted the Greek hero’s iconography and myths for their
literature and art under the name Hercules. In later
Western art
and literature and in
popular culture
, Hercules is more
commonly used than Heracles as the name of the hero. Hercules was a
multifaceted figure with contradictory characteristics, which enabled later
artists and writers to pick and choose how to represent him. This article
provides an introduction to representations of Hercules in the
later tradition
.

Labours

Hercules is known for his many adventures, which took him to the far reaches
of the
Greco-Roman world
. One cycle of these
adventures became
canonical
as the “Twelve Labours,” but the list
has variations. One traditional order of the labours is found in the
Bibliotheca
as follows:

Slay the
Nemean Lion
.
Slay the nine-headed
Lernaean Hydra
.
Capture the
Golden Hind of Artemis
.
Capture the
Erymanthian Boar
.
Clean the Augean
stables in a single day.
Slay the
Stymphalian Birds
.
Capture the
Cretan Bull
.
Steal the
Mares of Diomedes
.
Obtain the girdle of
Hippolyta
, Queen of the
Amazons
.
Obtain the cattle of the monster
Geryon
.
Steal the apples of the
Hesperides
.
Capture and bring back
Cerberus
.

The Latin
name Hercules was borrowed
through
Etruscan
, where it is represented variously
as Heracle
, Hercle, and other forms. Hercules
was a favorite subject for
Etruscan art
, and appears often on
bronze mirrors
. The Etruscan form Herceler derives from the Greek
Heracles via
syncope
. A mild oath invoking Hercules (Hercule!
or Mehercle!) was a common
interjection
in
Classical Latin
.

Baby Hercules strangling a
snake
sent to
kill him in his
cradle
(Roman marble, 2nd
century CE)

Hercules had a number of
myths
that were distinctly Roman. One of
these is Hercules’ defeat of
Cacus
, who was terrorizing the countryside
of Rome. The hero was associated with the
Aventine Hill
through his son
Aventinus
.
Mark Antony
considered him a personal
patron god, as did the emperor
Commodus
. Hercules received various forms
of
religious veneration
, including as a
deity concerned with children and childbirth
,
in part because of myths about his precocious infancy, and in part because
he fathered countless children. Roman brides wore a special belt tied with
the “knot
of Hercules“, which was supposed to be hard to untie.^[4]
The comic playwright
Plautus
presents the myth of Hercules’
conception as a sex comedy in his play
Amphitryon
;
Seneca
wrote the tragedy Hercules Furens
about his bout with madness. During the
Roman Imperial era
, Hercules was worshipped
locally from
Hispania
through
Gaul
.

Medieval mythography

After the Roman Empire became
Christianized
, mythological narratives were
often reinterpreted as
allegory
, influenced by the philosophy of
late antiquity
. In the 4th century,
Servius
had described Hercules’ return from the
underworld as representing his ability to overcome earthly desires and vices, or
the earth itself as a consumer of bodies.
In medieval mythography, Hercules was one of the heroes seen as a strong role
model who demonstrated both valor and wisdom, with the monsters he battles as
moral obstacles. One
glossator
noted that when
Hercules became a constellation
, he showed that
strength was necessary to gain entrance to Heaven.

Medieval mythography was written almost entirely in Latin, and original Greek
texts were little used as sources for Hercules’ myths.

Renaissance
mythography

The Renaissance
and the invention of the
printing press
brought a renewed interest in
and publication of Greek literature. Renaissance mythography drew more
extensively on the Greek tradition of Heracles, typically under the Romanized
name Hercules, or the alternate name
Alcides
. In a chapter of his book
Mythologiae (1567), the influential mythographer
Natale Conti
collected and summarized an
extensive range of myths concerning the birth, adventures, and death of the hero
under his Roman name Hercules. Conti begins his lengthy chapter on Hercules with
an overview description that continues the moralizing impulse of the Middle
Ages:

Hercules, who subdued and destroyed monsters, bandits, and criminals, was
justly famous and renowned for his great courage. His great and glorious
reputation was worldwide, and so firmly entrenched that he’ll always be
remembered. In fact the ancients honored him with his own temples, altars,
ceremonies, and priests. But it was his wisdom and great soul that earned
those honors; noble blood, physical strength, and political power just
aren’t good enough.

Alexander III of Macedon (20/21 July 356 – 10/11 June 323 BC),
commonly known as Alexander the Great from the Greek alexo “to
defend, help” + aner “man”),
was a king of
Macedon
, a state in northern
ancient Greece
. Born in
Pella
in 356 BC, Alexander was tutored by
Aristotle
until the age of 16. By the age of
thirty, he had created one of the
largest empires
of the
ancient world
, stretching from the
Ionian Sea
to the
Himalayas
.He was undefeated in battle and is
considered one of history’s most successful commanders.

Alexander
succeeded his father,
Philip II of Macedon
, to the throne in 336 BC
after Philip was assassinated. Upon Philip’s death, Alexander inherited a strong
kingdom and an experienced army. He was awarded the generalship of Greece and
used this authority to launch his father’s military expansion plans. In 334 BC,
he invaded
Persian
-ruled
Asia Minor
and began a
series of campaigns
that lasted ten years.
Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of decisive battles, most
notably the battles of
Issus
and
Gaugamela
. He subsequently overthrew the
Persian King
Darius III
and conquered the entirety of the
Persian Empire
. At that point, his empire
stretched from the
Adriatic Sea
to the
Indus River
.

Seeking to reach the “ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea”, he
invaded India
in 326 BC, but was eventually
forced to turn back at the demand of his troops. Alexander died in
Babylon
in 323 BC, without executing a series
of planned campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of
Arabia
. In the years following his death, a
series of civil wars tore his empire apart, resulting in several states ruled by
the Diadochi
, Alexander’s surviving generals and
heirs.

Alexander’s legacy includes the
cultural diffusion
his conquests engendered. He
founded some
twenty cities that bore his name
, most notably
Alexandria
in Egypt. Alexander’s settlement of
Greek colonists and the resulting spread of Greek culture in the east resulted
in a new
Hellenistic civilization
, aspects of which were
still evident in the traditions of the
Byzantine Empire
in the mid-15th century.
Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mold of
Achilles
, and he features prominently in the
history and myth of Greek and non-Greek cultures. He became the measure against
which military leaders compared themselves, and
military academies
throughout the world still
teach his tactics.

Early life

Lineage and childhood

Alexander was born on the 6th day of the ancient Greek month of
Hekatombaion
, in
Pella
, the capital of the
Ancient Greek

Kingdom of Macedon
.He was the son of the king
of Macedon,
Philip II
, and his fourth wife,
Olympias
, the daughter of
Neoptolemus I
, king of
Epirus
. Although Philip had seven or eight
wives, Olympias was his principal wife for some time, likely a result of giving
birth to Alexander.

Philip II
of Macedon
, Alexander’s father.

On the day that Alexander was born, Philip was preparing a
siege
on the city of
Potidea
on the peninsula of
Chalcidice
. That same day, Philip received news
that his general
Parmenion
had defeated the combined
Illyrian
and
Paeonian
armies, and that his horses had won at
the
Olympic Games
. It was also said that on this
day, the
Temple of Artemis
in
Ephesus
, one of the
Seven Wonders of the World
, burnt down. This
led
Hegesias of Magnesia
to say that it had burnt
down because Artemis
was away, attending the birth of
Alexander.

Bust of a young Alexander the Great from the Hellenistic era,
British
Museum

In his early years, Alexander was raised by a nurse,
Lanike
, sister of Alexander’s future general
Cleitus the Black
. Later in his childhood,
Alexander was tutored by the strict
Leonidas
, a relative of his mother, and by
Philip’s general
Lysimachus
. Alexander was raised in the manner
of noble Macedonian youths, learning to read, play the

lyre, ride, fight, and hunt.

When Alexander was ten years old, a trader from
Thessaly
brought Philip a horse, which he
offered to sell for thirteen
talents
. The horse refused to be mounted and
Philip ordered it away. Alexander however, detecting the horse’s fear of its own
shadow, asked to tame the horse, which he eventually managed. Philip, overjoyed
at this display of courage and ambition, kissed his son tearfully, declaring:
“My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too
small for you”, and bought the horse for him.Alexander named it
Bucephalas
, meaning “ox-head”. Bucephalas
carried Alexander as far as
Pakistan
. When the animal died at age thirty,
Alexander named a city after him,
Bucephala
.

When Alexander was 13, Philip began to search for a
tutor
, chose
Aristotle
and provided the Temple of the Nymphs
at Mieza
as a classroom. In return for teaching
Alexander, Philip agreed to rebuild Aristotle’s hometown of
Stageira
, which Philip had razed, and to
repopulate it by buying and freeing the ex-citizens who were slaves, or
pardoning those who were in exile.

Mieza was like a boarding school for Alexander and the children of Macedonian
nobles, such as
Ptolemy
,
Hephaistion
, and
Cassander
. Many of these students would become
his friends and future generals, and are often known as the ‘Companions’.
Aristotle taught Alexander and his companions about medicine, philosophy,
morals, religion, logic, and art. Under Aristotle’s tutelage, Alexander
developed a passion for the works of
Homer
, and in particular the
Iliad
; Aristotle gave him an annotated
copy, which Alexander later carried on his campaigns.

At age 16, Alexander’s education under Aristotle ended. Philip waged war
against Byzantion
, leaving Alexander in charge as
regent
and
heir apparent
. During Philip’s absence, the
Thracian

Maedi
revolted against Macedonia. Alexander
responded quickly, driving them from their territory. He colonized it with
Greeks, and founded a city named
Alexandropolis
.

Upon Philip’s return, he dispatched Alexander with a small force to subdue
revolts in southern Thrace
. Campaigning against the Greek city of
Perinthus
, Alexander is reported to have saved
his father’s life. Meanwhile, the city of
Amphissa
began to work lands that were sacred
to Apollo
near
Delphi
, a sacrilege that gave Philip the
opportunity to further intervene in Greek affairs. Still occupied in Thrace, he
ordered Alexander to muster an army for a campaign in Greece. Concerned that
other Greek states might intervene, Alexander made it look as though he was
preparing to attack Illyria instead. During this turmoil, the Illyrians invaded
Macedonia, only to be repelled by Alexander.

Philip and his army joined his son in 338 BC, and they marched south through
Thermopylae
, taking it after stubborn
resistance from its Theban garrison. They went on to occupy the city of
Elatea
, only a few days’ march from both Athens
and Thebes. The Athenians, led by
Demosthenes
, voted to seek alliance with Thebes
against Macedonia. Both Athens and Philip sent embassies to win Thebes’ favor,
but Athens won the contest.Philip marched on Amphissa (ostensibly acting on the
request of the
Amphictyonic League
), capturing the mercenaries
sent there by
Demosthenes
and accepting the city’s surrender.
Philip then returned to Elatea, sending a final offer of peace to Athens and
Thebes, who both rejected it.

As Philip marched south, his opponents blocked him near
Chaeronea
,
Boeotia
. During the ensuing
Battle of Chaeronea
, Philip commanded the right
wing and Alexander the left, accompanied by a group of Philip’s trusted
generals. According to the ancient sources, the two sides fought bitterly for
some time. Philip deliberately commanded his troops to retreat, counting on the
untested Athenian
hoplites
to follow, thus breaking their line.
Alexander was the first to break the Theban lines, followed by Philip’s
generals. Having damaged the enemy’s cohesion, Philip ordered his troops to
press forward and quickly routed them. With the Athenians lost, the Thebans were
surrounded. Left to fight alone, they were defeated.

After the victory at Chaeronea, Philip and Alexander marched unopposed into
the Peloponnese, welcomed by all cities; however, when they reached
Sparta
, they were refused, but did not resort
to war.At
Corinth
, Philip established a “Hellenic
Alliance” (modeled on the old
anti-Persian alliance
of the
Greco-Persian Wars
), which included most Greek
city-states except Sparta. Philip was then named
Hegemon
(often translated as “Supreme
Commander”) of this league (known by modern scholars as the
League of Corinth
), and announced his plans to
attack the
Persian Empire
.

When Philip returned to Pella, he fell in love with and married
Cleopatra Eurydice
, the niece of his general
Attalus
. The marriage made Alexander’s position
as heir less secure, since any son of Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully
Macedonian heir, while Alexander was only half-Macedonian.

Alexander fled Macedon with his mother, dropping her off with her brother,
King
Alexander I of Epirus
in
Dodona
, capital of the
Molossians
.He continued to Illyria, where he
sought refuge with the Illyrian King and was treated as a guest, despite having
defeated them in battle a few years before. However, it appears Philip never
intended to disown his politically and militarily trained son. Accordingly,
Alexander returned to Macedon after six months due to the efforts of a family
friend,
Demaratus
, who mediated between the two
parties.

In 336 BC, while at
Aegae
attending the wedding of his daughter
Cleopatra
to Olympias’s brother,
Alexander I of Epirus
, Philip was assassinated
by the captain of his
bodyguards
,
Pausanias
. As Pausanias tried to escape, he
tripped over a vine and was killed by his pursuers, including two of Alexander’s
companions, Perdiccas
and
Leonnatus
. Alexander was proclaimed king by the
nobles and
army
at the age of 20.

Alexander began his reign by eliminating potential rivals to the throne. He
had his cousin, the former
Amyntas IV
, executed. He also had two
Macedonian princes from the region of
Lyncestis
killed, but spared a third,
Alexander Lyncestes
. Olympias had Cleopatra
Eurydice and Europa, her daughter by Philip, burned alive. When Alexander
learned about this, he was furious. Alexander also ordered the murder of
Attalus, who was in command of the advance guard of the army in Asia Minor and
Cleopatra’s uncle.

News of Philip’s death roused many states into revolt, including Thebes,
Athens, Thessaly, and the Thracian tribes north of Macedon. When news of the
revolts reached Alexander, he responded quickly. Though advised to use
diplomacy, Alexander mustered the Macedonian cavalry of 3,000 and rode south
towards Thessaly. He found the Thessalian army occupying the pass between
Mount Olympus
and
Mount Ossa
, and ordered his men to ride over
Mount Ossa. When the Thessalians awoke the next day, they found Alexander in
their rear and promptly surrendered, adding their cavalry to Alexander’s force.
He then continued south towards the
Peloponnese
.

Alexander stopped at Thermopylae, where he was recognized as the leader of
the Amphictyonic League before heading south to
Corinth
. Athens sued for peace and Alexander
pardoned the rebels. The famous
encounter between Alexander and Diogenes the Cynic

occurred during Alexander’s stay in Corinth. When Alexander asked Diogenes what
he could do for him, the philosopher disdainfully asked Alexander to stand a
little to the side, as he was blocking the sunlight. This reply apparently
delighted Alexander, who is reported to have said “But verily, if I were not
Alexander, I would like to be Diogenes.” At Corinth Alexander took the title of
Hegemon (“leader”), and like Philip, was appointed commander for the
coming war against Persia. He also received news of a Thracian uprising.

Alexander’s army crossed the
Hellespont
in 334 BC with approximately 48,100
soldiers, 6,100 cavalry and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering
38,000,drawn from Macedon and various Greek city-states, mercenaries, and
feudally raised soldiers from
Thrace
,
Paionia
, and
Illyria
. He showed his intent to conquer the
entirety of the Persian Empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying he
accepted Asia as a gift from the gods. This also showed Alexander’s eagerness to
fight, in contrast to his father’s preference for diplomacy.

After an initial victory against Persian forces at the
Battle of the Granicus
, Alexander accepted the
surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of
Sardis
; he then proceeded along the
Ionian
coast. Though Alexander believed in his
divine right to expend the lives of men in battle, he did experience sorrow, as
those who died were rewarded generously. He did not directly influence the
culture of the Persians they did not feel the need to begin a rebellion as their
men and rulers were treated with proper respect.

The Levant and Syria

Alexander journeyed south but was met by Darius’ significantly larger army
which he easily defeated, causing Darius to panic. Although he was chased by
some troops ‘Alexander treated them (his family) with the respect out of
consideration’ which demonstrated his continued generosity and kindness towards
those he conquered.Darius fled the battle, causing his army to collapse, and
left behind his wife, his two daughters, his mother
Sisygambis
, and a fabulous treasure.He offered
a peace treaty
that included the lands he had
already lost, and a ransom of 10,000
talents
for his family. Alexander replied that
since he was now king of Asia, it was he alone who decided territorial
divisions.

Alexander proceeded to take possession of
Syria
, and most of the coast of the
Levant
. In the following year, 332 BC, he was
forced to attack
Tyre
, which he captured after a long and
difficult
siege
.Alexander massacred the men of military
age and sold the women and children into
slavery
.

Egypt

When Alexander destroyed Tyre, most of the towns on the route to Egypt
quickly capitulated, with the exception of

Gaza. The stronghold at Gaza was heavily fortified and built on a
hill, requiring a siege. Alexander came upon the city only to be met with a
surprising resistance and fortification. When ‘his engineers pointed out to him
that because of the height of the mound it would be impossible… this encouraged
Alexander all the more to make the attempt’ . The divine right that Alexander
believed he had gave him confidence of a miracle occurring. After three
unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold fell, but not before Alexander had
received a serious shoulder wound. As in Tyre, men of military age were put to
the sword and the women and children sold into slavery.

Jerusalem instead opened its gates in surrender, and according to
Josephus
, Alexander was shown the
Book of Daniel
‘s prophecy, presumably chapter
8, which described a mighty Greek king who would conquer the Persian Empire. He
spared Jerusalem and pushed south into Egypt.

Alexander advanced on Egypt in later 332 BC, where he was regarded as a
liberator. He was pronounced the new “master of the Universe” and son of the
deity of Amun
at the
Oracle
of
Siwa Oasis
in the
Libyan
desert.Henceforth, Alexander often
referred to
Zeus-Ammon
as his true father, and subsequent
currency depicted him adorned with rams horn as a symbol of his divinity. During
his stay in Egypt, he founded
Alexandria-by-Egypt
, which would become the
prosperous capital of the
Ptolemaic Kingdom
after his death.

Bust of
Alexander
the Great
as Helios (Musei
Capitolini)

Assyria and Babylonia

Leaving Egypt in 331 BC, Alexander marched eastward into
Mesopotamia
(now northern

Iraq) and again defeated Darius, at the
Battle of Gaugamela
. Darius once more fled the
field, and Alexander chased him as far as
Arbela
. Gaugamela would be the final and
decisive encounter between the two. Darius fled over the mountains to
Ecbatana
(modern
Hamedan
), while Alexander captured
Babylon
.

Persia

From Babylon, Alexander went to

Susa, one of the
Achaemenid
capitals, and captured its legendary
treasury.
He sent the bulk of his army to the Persian ceremonial capital of
Persepolis
via the
Royal Road
. Alexander himself took selected
troops on the direct route to the city. He had to storm the pass of the
Persian Gates
(in the modern
Zagros Mountains
) which had been blocked by a
Persian army under
Ariobarzanes
and then hurried to Persepolis
before its garrison could loot the treasury.

File:BattleofIssus333BC-mosaic-detail1.jpg

Alexander fighting the Persian king
Darius III
.
From
Alexander Mosaic
,
Naples National
Archaeological Museum

On entering Persepolis, Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for
several days.Alexander stayed in Persepolis for five months. During his stay a
fire broke out in the eastern palace of
Xerxes
and spread to the rest of the city.
Possible causes include a drunken accident or deliberate revenge for the burning
of the
Acropolis of Athens
during the
Second Persian War
.

Fall of the
Empire and the East

Alexander then chased Darius, first into Media, and then Parthia.The Persian
king no longer controlled his own destiny, and was taken prisoner by
Bessus
, his
Bactrian
satrap and kinsman.As Alexander
approached, Bessus had his men fatally stab the Great King and then declared
himself Darius’ successor as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia
to launch a
guerrilla
campaign against Alexander. Alexander
buried Darius’ remains next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a regal funeral.He
claimed that, while dying, Darius had named him as his successor to the
Achaemenid throne. The Achaemenid Empire is normally considered to have fallen
with Darius.Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him.
This campaign, initially against Bessus, turned into a grand tour of central
Asia. Alexander founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including
modern Kandahar
in Afghanistan, and
Alexandria Eschate
(“The Furthest”) in modern
Tajikistan
. The campaign took Alexander through
Media
,
Parthia
,
Aria
(West Afghanistan),
Drangiana
,
Arachosia
(South and Central Afghanistan),
Bactria
(North and Central Afghanistan), and
Scythia
.

Spitamenes
, who held an undefined position in
the satrapy of Sogdiana, in 329 BC betrayed Bessus to
Ptolemy
, one of Alexander’s trusted companions,
and Bessus was executed. However, when, at some point later, Alexander was on
the Jaxartes
dealing with an incursion by a horse
nomad army, Spitamenes raised Sogdiana in revolt. Alexander personally defeated
the Scythians at the
Battle of Jaxartes
and immediately launched a
campaign against Spitamenes, defeating him in the Battle of Gabai. After the
defeat, Spitamenes was killed by his own men, who then sued for peace.The empire
began falling as military leaders and eventually Alexander died.

Problems and plots

During this time, Alexander took the Persian title “King of Kings” (Shahanshah)
and adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the
custom of
proskynesis
, either a symbolic kissing of
the hand, or prostration on the ground, that Persians showed to their social
superiors. The Greeks regarded the gesture as the province of
deities
and believed that Alexander meant to
deify himself by requiring it. This cost him the sympathies of many of his
countrymen, and he eventually abandoned it.

A plot against his life was revealed, and one of his officers,
Philotas
, was executed for failing to alert
Alexander. The death of the son necessitated the death of the father, and thus
Parmenion
, who had been charged with guarding
the treasury at Ecbatana
, was assassinated at Alexander’s
command, to prevent attempts at vengeance. Most infamously, Alexander personally
killed the man who had saved his life at Granicus,
Cleitus the Black
, during a violent drunken
altercation at
Maracanda
(modern day
Samarkand
in
Uzbekistan
), in which Cleitus accused Alexander
of several judgemental mistakes and most especially, of having forgot the
Macedonian ways in favour of a corrupt oriental lifestyle.

Macedon in
Alexander’s absence

When Alexander set out for Asia, he left his general
Antipater
, an experienced military and
political leader and part of Philip II’s “Old Guard”, in charge of Macedon.
Alexander’s sacking of Thebes ensured that Greece remained quiet during his
absence. The one exception was a call to arms by Spartan king
Agis III
in 331 BC, whom Antipater defeated and
killed in battle at
Megalopolis
the following year. Antipater
referred the Spartans’ punishment to the League of Corinth, which then deferred
to Alexander, who chose to pardon them. There was also considerable friction
between Antipater and Olympias, and each complained to Alexander about the
other.

In general, Greece enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity during
Alexander’s campaign in Asia. Alexander sent back vast sums from his conquest,
which stimulated the economy and increased trade across his empire.However,
Alexander’s constant demands for troops and the migration of Macedonians
throughout his empire depleted Macedon’s manpower, greatly weakening it in the
years after Alexander, and ultimately led to its subjugation by Rome.

Indian campaign

After the death of
Spitamenes
and his marriage to Roxana (Roshanak
in
Bactrian
) to cement relations with his new
satrapies, Alexander turned to the
Indian subcontinent
. He invited the
chieftains
of the former satrapy of
Gandhara
, in the north of what is now
Pakistan
, to come to him and submit to his
authority.
Omphis
, ruler of
Taxila
, whose kingdom extended from the
Indus
to the
Hydaspes
, complied, but the chieftains of some
hill clans, including the
Aspasioi
and
Assakenoi
sections of the
Kambojas
(known in Indian texts also as
Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas), refused to submit.In the winter of 327/326 BC,
Alexander personally led a campaign against these clans; the Aspasioi of
Kunar

valleys
, the Guraeans of the
Guraeus
valley, and the Assakenoi of the
Swat
and
Buner
valleys.A fierce contest ensued with the
Aspasioi in which Alexander was wounded in the shoulder by a dart, but
eventually the Aspasioi lost. Alexander then faced the Assakenoi, who fought in
the strongholds of Massaga, Ora and
Aornos
.The fort of Massaga was reduced only
after days of bloody fighting, in which Alexander was wounded seriously in the
ankle.

After Aornos, Alexander crossed the Indus and fought and won an epic battle
against King Porus
, who ruled a region in the
Punjab
, in the
Battle of the Hydaspes
in 326 BC. Alexander was
impressed by Porus’s bravery, and made him an ally. He appointed Porus as
satrap, and added to Porus’ territory land that he did not previously own.
Choosing a local helped him control these lands so distant from Greece.Alexander
founded two cities on opposite sides of the
Hydaspes
river, naming one
Bucephala
, in honor of his horse, who died
around this time.The other was
Nicaea
(Victory) located at the site of modern
day Mong, Punjab
.

Revolt of the army

East of Porus’ kingdom, near the
Ganges River
, were the
Nanda Empire
of
Magadha
and further east the
Gangaridai Empire
of
Bengal
. Fearing the prospect of facing other
large armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, Alexander’s army mutinied at
the Hyphasis River
, refusing to march farther east.
This river thus marks the easternmost extent of Alexander’s conquests. Alexander
tried to persuade his soldiers to march farther, but his general
Coenus
pleaded with him to change his opinion
and return; the men, he said, “longed to again see their parents, their wives
and children, their homeland”. Alexander eventually agreed and turned south,
marching along the
Indus
. Along the way his army conquered the
Malli
clans (in modern day
Multan
) and other Indian tribes.Alexander sent much of his army to
Carmania
(modern southern

Iran) with general
Craterus
, and commissioned a fleet to explore
the Persian Gulf
shore under his admiral
Nearchus
, while he led the rest back to Persia
through the more difficult southern route along the
Gedrosian Desert
and
Makran
(now part of southern Iran and
Pakistan).Alexander reached Susa in 324 BC, but not before losing many men to
the harsh desert.

Last years in Persia

Discovering that many of his
satraps
and military governors had misbehaved
in his absence, Alexander executed several of them as examples on his way to

Susa. As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers,
and announced that he would send over-aged and disabled veterans back to
Macedon, led by Craterus. His troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at
the town of Opis
. They refused to be sent away and
criticized his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of
Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units.

Death and succession

On either 10 or 11 June 323 BC, Alexander died in the palace of
Nebuchadnezzar II
, in
Babylon
, at age 32. Details of the death differ
slightly – Plutarch
‘s account is that roughly 14 days
before his death, Alexander entertained admiral
Nearchus
, and spent the night and next day
drinking with
Medius of Larissa
.He developed a fever, which
worsened until he was unable to speak. Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian and
Justin all mentioned the theory that Alexander was poisoned.

The strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days
passed between the start of his illness and his death; such long-acting poisons
were probably not available. In 2010, however, a new theory proposed that the
circumstances of his death were compatible with poisoning by water of the river
Styx (Mavroneri)
that contained
calicheamicin
, a dangerous compound produced by
bacteria
.Several
natural causes
(diseases) have been suggested,
including malaria
and
typhoid fever
.

After death

Alexander’s body was laid in a gold anthropoid
sarcophagus
that was filled with honey, which
was in turn placed in a gold casket. While Alexander’s funeral cortege was on
its way to Macedon, Ptolemy stole it and took it to Memphis. His successor,
Ptolemy II Philadelphus
, transferred the
sarcophagus to Alexandria, where it remained until at least
late Antiquity
.
Ptolemy IX Lathyros
, one of Ptolemy’s final
successors, replaced Alexander’s sarcophagus with a glass one so he could
convert the original to coinage.

Pompey
,
Julius Caesar
and
Augustus
all visited the tomb in Alexandria.
Caligula
was said to have taken Alexander’s
breastplate from the tomb for his own use. In c. AD 200, Emperor
Septimius Severus
closed Alexander’s tomb to
the public. His son and successor,
Caracalla
, a great admirer, visited the tomb
during his own reign. After this, details on the fate of the tomb are hazy.

Division of the empire

Alexander’s death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached
Greece, they were not immediately believed.Alexander had no obvious or
legitimate heir, his son Alexander IV by Roxane being born after Alexander’s
death.According to Diodorus, Alexander’s companions asked him on his deathbed to
whom he bequeathed his kingdom; his laconic reply was “tôi kratistôi”—”to the
strongest”.

In 321 BC, Macedonian unity collapsed, and 40 years of war between “The
Successors” (Diadochi) ensued before the Hellenistic world settled into
four stable power blocks: the
Ptolemaic Kingdom
of Egypt, the
Seleucid Empire
in the east, the Kingdom of
Pergamon
in Asia Minor, and Macedon. In the
process, both Alexander IV and Philip III were murdered.

Character

Alexander earned the epithet “the Great” due to his unparalleled success as a
military commander. He never lost a battle, despite typically being
outnumbered.This was due to use of terrain,
phalanx
and cavalry tactics, bold strategy, and
the fierce loyalty of his troops.The
Macedonian phalanx
, armed with the
sarissa
, a spear 6 metres (20 ft) long, had
been developed and perfected by Philip II through rigorous training, and
Alexander used its speed and maneuverability to great effect against larger but
more disparate Persian forces.Alexander also recognized the potential for
disunity among his diverse army, which employed various languages and weapons.
He overcame this by being personally involved in battle,in the manner of a
Macedonian king.

When faced with opponents who used unfamiliar fighting techniques, such as in
Central Asia and India, Alexander adapted his forces to his opponents’ style.
Thus, in Bactria
and
Sogdiana
, Alexander successfully used his
javelin throwers and archers to prevent outflanking movements, while massing his
cavalry at the center. In India, confronted by Porus’ elephant corps, the
Macedonians opened their ranks to envelop the elephants and used their sarissas
to strike upwards and dislodge the elephants’ handlers.

Physical appearance:

Greek historian Arrian

described Alexander as:

The strong, handsome commander with one eye dark as the night and one
blue as the sky.

Alexander suffered from
heterochromia iridum
: that one eye was dark and
the other light.

Personality

Some of Alexander’s strongest personality traits formed in response to his
parents.His mother had huge ambitions, and encouraged him to believe it was his
destiny to conquer the Persian Empire. Olympias’ influence instilled a sense of
destiny in him, and Plutarch tells us that his ambition “kept his spirit serious
and lofty in advance of his years”. However, his father Philip was Alexander’s
most immediate and influential role model, as the young Alexander watched him
campaign practically every year, winning victory after victory while ignoring
severe wounds.Alexander’s relationship with his father forged the competitive
side of his personality; he had a need to out-do his father, illustrated by his
reckless behavior in battle. While Alexander worried that his father would leave
him “no great or brilliant achievement to be displayed to the world”, he also
downplayed his father’s achievements to his companions.

According to Plutarch, among Alexander’s traits were a violent temper and
rash, impulsive nature, which undoubtedly contributed to some of his decisions.
Although Alexander was stubborn and did not respond well to orders from his
father, he was open to reasoned debate. He had a calmer side—perceptive,
logical, and calculating. He had a great desire for knowledge, a love for
philosophy, and was an avid reader.This was no doubt in part due to Aristotle’s
tutelage; Alexander was intelligent and quick to learn. His intelligent and
rational side was amply demonstrated by his ability and success as a general.

Alexander was erudite and patronized both arts and sciences.However, he had
little interest in sports or the
Olympic games
(unlike his father), seeking only
the
Homeric
ideals of honor (timê) and glory
(kudos). He had great
charisma
and force of personality,
characteristics which made him a great leader. His unique abilities were further
demonstrated by the inability of any of his generals to unite Macedonia and
retain the Empire after his death – only Alexander had the ability to do so.

During his final years, and especially after the death of Hephaestion,
Alexander began to exhibit signs of
megalomania
and
paranoia
.His extraordinary achievements,
coupled with his own ineffable sense of destiny and the flattery of his
companions, may have combined to produce this effect.

He appears to have believed himself a deity, or at least sought to deify
himself. Olympias always insisted to him that he was the son of Zeus,a theory
apparently confirmed to him by the oracle of Amun at
Siwa
. He began to identify himself as the son
of Zeus-Ammon.Alexander adopted elements of Persian dress and customs at court,
notably
proskynesis
, a practice that Macedonians
disapproved, and were loath to perform. This behavior cost him the sympathies of
many of his countrymen.However, Alexander also was a pragmatic ruler who
understood the difficulties of ruling culturally disparate peoples, many of whom
lived in kingdoms where the king was divine.Thus, rather than megalomania, his
behavior may simply have been a practical attempt at strengthening his rule and
keeping his empire together.

Personal relationships

Alexander, left, and
Hephaestion
, right

The central personal relationship of Alexander’s life was with his friend,
general, and bodyguard
Hephaestion
, the son of a Macedonian
noble.Hephaestion’s death devastated Alexander.This event may have contributed
to Alexander’s failing health and detached
mental state
during his final months.

Alexander married twice:
Roxana
, daughter of the
Bactrian
nobleman
Oxyartes
, out of love; and
Stateira II
, a Persian princess and daughter of
Darius III
of Persia, for political reasons. He
apparently had two sons, Alexander IV of Macedon of Roxana and, possibly,
Heracles of Macedon
from his mistress Barsine.
He lost another child when Roxana miscarried at Babylon.

Alexander’s sexuality has been the subject of speculation and controversy. No
ancient sources stated that Alexander had
homosexual
relationships, or that Alexander’s
relationship with Hephaestion was sexual. Aelian, however, writes of Alexander’s
visit to Troy
where “Alexander garlanded the tomb of
Achilles and Hephaestion that of
Patroclus
, the latter riddling that he was a
beloved of Alexander, in just the same way as Patroclus was of Achilles”. Noting
that the word
eromenos
(ancient Greek for beloved) does
not necessarily bear sexual meaning, Alexander may have been bisexual, which in
his time was not controversial.

Influence on Rome

Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans, especially generals,
who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements.
Pompey the Great
adopted the epithet “Magnus”
and even Alexander’s anatole-type haircut, and searched the conquered lands of
the east for Alexander’s 260-year-old cloak, which he then wore as a sign of
greatness. Julius
Caesar dedicated a
Lysippean

equestrian

bronze
statue but replaced Alexander’s head
with his own, while
Octavian
visited Alexander’s tomb in Alexandria
and temporarily changed his seal from a
sphinx
to Alexander’s profile. The emperor
Trajan
also admired Alexander, as did

Nero and
Caracalla
.The Macriani, a Roman family that in
the person of Macrinus
briefly ascended to the imperial
throne, kept images of Alexander on their persons, either on jewelry, or
embroidered into their clothes.

Alexander the Great’s accomplishments and legacy have been depicted in many
cultures. Alexander has figured in both high and popular culture beginning in
his own era to the present day. The Alexander Romance, in particular, has
had a significant impact on portrayals of Alexander in later cultures, from
Persian to medieval European to modern Greek.

The history of
Ancient Greek
coinage can be divided (along
with most other Greek art forms) into four periods, the
Archaic
, the
Classical
, the
Hellenistic
and the
Roman
. The Archaic period extends from the
introduction of coinage to the Greek world during the
7th century BC
until the
Persian Wars
in about 480 BC. The Classical
period then began, and lasted until the conquests of
Alexander the Great
in about 330 BC, which
began the Hellenistic period, extending until the
Roman
absorption of the Greek world in the 1st
century BC. The Greek cities continued to produce their own coins for several
more centuries under Roman rule. The coins produced during this period are
called
Roman provincial coins
or Greek Imperial Coins.
Ancient Greek coins of all four periods span over a period of more than ten
centuries.

Weight
standards and denominations

Above: Six rod-shaped obeloi (oboloi) displayed at the
Numismatic Museum of Athens
,
discovered at
Heraion of Argos
. Below: grasp^[1]
of six oboloi forming one drachma

Electrum
coin from
Ephesus
, 620-600 BC, known as
Phanes’ coin
. Obverse:
Stag
grazing, ΦΑΝΕΩΣ (retrograde).
Reverse: Two incuse punches.

The basic standards of the Ancient Greek monetary system were the
Attic
standard, based on the Athenian
drachma
of 4.3 grams of silver and the
Corinthian
standard based on the
stater
of 8.6 grams of silver, that was
subdivided into three silver drachmas of 2.9 grams. The word
drachm
(a) means “a handful”, literally “a
grasp”. Drachmae were divided into six
obols
(from the Greek word for a
spit
), and six spits made a “handful”. This
suggests that before coinage came to be used in Greece, spits in
prehistoric times
were used as measures of
daily transaction. In archaic/pre-numismatic times iron was valued for making
durable tools and weapons, and its casting in spit form may have actually
represented a form of transportable
bullion
, which eventually became bulky and
inconvenient after the adoption of precious metals. Because of this very aspect,
Spartan
legislation famously forbade issuance
of Spartan coin, and enforced the continued use of iron spits so as to
discourage avarice and the hoarding of wealth. In addition to its original
meaning (which also gave the
euphemistic

diminutive
“obelisk“,
“little spit”), the word obol (ὀβολός, obolós, or ὀβελός,
obelós) was retained as a Greek word for coins of small value, still used as
such in Modern Greek
slang (όβολα, óvola,
“monies”).

The obol was further subdivided into tetartemorioi (singular
tetartemorion) which represented 1/4 of an obol, or 1/24 of a drachm. This
coin (which was known to have been struck in
Athens
,
Colophon
, and several other cities) is
mentioned by Aristotle
as the smallest silver coin.^:237
Various multiples of this denomination were also struck, including the
trihemitetartemorion (literally three half-tetartemorioi) valued at 3/8 of
an obol.^:

Denominations of silver drachma
Image	Denomination	Value	Weight
	Dekadrachm	10 drachmas	43 grams
	Tetradrachm	4 drachmas	17.2 grams
	Didrachm	2 drachmas	8.6 grams
	Drachma	6 obols	4.3 grams
	Tetrobol	4 obols	2.85 grams
	Triobol (hemidrachm)	3 obols	2.15 grams
	Diobol	2 obols	1.43 grams
	Obol	4 tetartemorions	0.72 grams
	Tritartemorion	3 tetartemorions	0.54 grams
	Hemiobol	2 tetartemorions	0.36 grams
	Trihemitartemorion	3/2 tetartemorions	0.27 grams
	Tetartemorion		0.18 grams
	Hemitartemorion	½ tetartemorion	0.09 grams

Archaic period

Archaic coinage

Uninscribed
electrum
coin from
Lydia
, 6th century BCE.
Obverse: lion head and sunburst Reverse: plain square
imprints, probably used to standardise weight

Electrum
coin from
Ephesus
, 620-600 BC. Obverse:
Forepart of stag. Reverse: Square incuse punch.

The first coins were issued in either Lydia or Ionia in Asia Minor at some
time before 600 BC, either by the non-Greek Lydians for their own use or perhaps
because Greek mercenaries wanted to be paid in precious metal at the conclusion
of their time of service, and wanted to have their payments marked in a way that
would authenticate them. These coins were made of
electrum
, an alloy of gold and silver that was
highly prized and abundant in that area. By the middle of the 6th century BC,
technology had advanced, making the production of pure gold and silver coins
simpler. Accordingly, King
Croesus
introduced a bi-metallic standard that
allowed for coins of pure gold and pure silver to be struck and traded in the
marketplace.

Coins of Aegina

Silver
stater
of Aegina, 550-530 BC.
Obv.
Sea turtle
with large pellets
down center. Rev. incuse square with eight sections. After the
end of the
Peloponnesian War
, 404 BC, Sea
turtle was replaced by the land
tortoise
.

Silver
drachma
of Aegina, 404-340 BC.
Obverse: Land
tortoise
. Reverse: inscription
AΙΓ[INAΤΟΝ] ([of the] Aeg[inetans]) “Aegina” and dolphin.

The Greek world was divided into more than two thousand self-governing
city-states (in
Greek
, poleis), and more than half of
them issued their own coins. Some coins circulated widely beyond their polis,
indicating that they were being used in inter-city trade; the first example
appears to have been the silver stater or didrachm of
Aegina
that regularly turns up in hoards in
Egypt
and the
Levant
, places which were deficient in silver
supply. As such coins circulated more widely, other cities began to mint coins
to this “Aeginetan” weight standard of (6.1 grams to the drachm), other cities
included their own symbols on the coins. This is not unlike present day

Euro coins, which are recognisably from a particular country, but
usable all over the
Euro zone
.

Athenian coins, however, were struck on the “Attic” standard, with a drachm
equaling 4.3 grams of silver. Over time, Athens’ plentiful supply of silver from
the mines at
Laurion
and its increasing dominance in trade
made this the pre-eminent standard. These coins, known as “owls” because of
their central design feature, were also minted to an extremely tight standard of
purity and weight. This contributed to their success as the premier trade coin
of their era. Tetradrachms on this weight standard continued to be a widely used
coin (often the most widely used) through the classical period. By the time of
Alexander the Great
and his
Hellenistic successors
, this large denomination
was being regularly used to make large payments, or was often saved for
hoarding.

Classical period

A
Syracusan

tetradrachm
(c. 415–405
BC)
Obverse: head of the
nymph

Arethusa
, surrounded by
four swimming
dolphins
and a
rudder

Reverse: a racing
quadriga
, its
charioteer
crowned by the
goddess
Victory
in flight.

Tetradrachm of Athens, (5th century BC)
Obverse: a portrait of
Athena
, patron goddess of
the city, in
helmet

Reverse: the owl of Athens, with an
olive
sprig and the
inscription “ΑΘΕ”, short for ΑΘΕΝΑΙΟΝ, “of the
Athenians
“

The
Classical period
saw Greek coinage reach a high
level of technical and aesthetic quality. Larger cities now produced a range of
fine silver and gold coins, most bearing a portrait of their patron god or
goddess or a legendary hero on one side, and a symbol of the city on the other.
Some coins employed a visual pun: some coins from
Rhodes
featured a

rose, since the Greek word for rose is rhodon. The use of
inscriptions on coins also began, usually the name of the issuing city.

The wealthy cities of Sicily produced some especially fine coins. The large
silver decadrachm (10-drachm) coin from
Syracuse
is regarded by many collectors as the
finest coin produced in the ancient world, perhaps ever. Syracusan issues were
rather standard in their imprints, one side bearing the head of the nymph
Arethusa
and the other usually a victorious
quadriga
. The
tyrants of Syracuse
were fabulously rich, and
part of their
public relations
policy was to fund
quadrigas
for the
Olympic chariot race
, a very expensive
undertaking. As they were often able to finance more than one quadriga at a
time, they were frequent victors in this highly prestigious event.

Syracuse was one of the epicenters of numismatic art during the classical
period. Led by the engravers Kimon and Euainetos, Syracuse produced some of the
finest coin designs of antiquity.

Hellenistic period

Gold 20-stater
of
Eucratides I
, the largest gold coin
ever minted in Antiquity.

Drachma of
Alexandria
, 222-235 AD. Obverse:
Laureate head of
Alexander Severus
, KAI(ΣΑΡ) MAP(ΚΟΣ)
AYP(ΗΛΙΟΣ) ΣЄY(ΑΣΤΟΣ) AΛЄΞANΔPOΣ ЄYΣЄ(ΒΗΣ). Reverse: Bust of
Asclepius
.

The Hellenistic period was characterized by the spread of Greek
culture across a large part of the known world. Greek-speaking kingdoms were
established in Egypt
and
Syria
, and for a time also in

Iran and as far east as what is now
Afghanistan
and northwestern
India
. Greek traders spread Greek coins across
this vast area, and the new kingdoms soon began to produce their own coins.
Because these kingdoms were much larger and wealthier than the Greek city states
of the classical period, their coins tended to be more mass-produced, as well as
larger, and more frequently in gold. They often lacked the aesthetic delicacy of
coins of the earlier period.

Still, some of the
Greco-Bactrian
coins, and those of their
successors in India, the
Indo-Greeks
, are considered the finest examples
of
Greek numismatic art
with “a nice blend of
realism and idealization”, including the largest coins to be minted in the
Hellenistic world: the largest gold coin was minted by
Eucratides
(reigned 171–145 BC), the largest
silver coin by the Indo-Greek king
Amyntas Nikator
(reigned c. 95–90 BC). The
portraits “show a degree of individuality never matched by the often bland
depictions of their royal contemporaries further West” (Roger Ling, “Greece and
the Hellenistic World”).

The most striking new feature of Hellenistic coins was the use of portraits
of living people, namely of the kings themselves. This practice had begun in
Sicily, but was disapproved of by other Greeks as showing
hubris
(arrogance). But the kings of
Ptolemaic Egypt
and
Seleucid Syria
had no such scruples: having
already awarded themselves with “divine” status, they issued magnificent gold
coins adorned with their own portraits, with the symbols of their state on the
reverse. The names of the kings were frequently inscribed on the coin as well.
This established a pattern for coins which has persisted ever since: a portrait
of the king, usually in profile and striking a heroic pose, on the obverse, with
his name beside him, and a coat of arms or other symbol of state on the reverse.

Minting

All Greek coins were
handmade
, rather than machined as modern coins
are. The design for the obverse was carved (in
incuso
) into a block of bronze or possibly
iron, called a
die
. The design of the reverse was carved into
a similar punch. A blank disk of gold, silver, or electrum was cast in a mold
and then, placed between these two and the punch struck hard with a hammer,
raising the design on both sides of the coin.

Coins as
a symbol of the city-state

Coins of Greek city-states depicted a unique
symbol
or feature, an early form of
emblem
, also known as
badge
in numismatics, that represented their
city and promoted the prestige of their state. Corinthian stater for example
depicted pegasus
the mythological winged stallion, tamed
by their hero
Bellerophon
. Coins of
Ephesus
depicted the
bee
sacred to
Artemis
. Drachmas of Athens depicted the
owl of Athena
. Drachmas of
Aegina
depicted a
chelone
. Coins of
Selinunte
depicted a “selinon” (σέλινον
– celery
). Coins of
Heraclea
depicted
Heracles
. Coins of

Gela depicted a man-headed bull, the personification of the river
Gela
. Coins of
Rhodes
depicted a “rhodon” (ῥόδον^[8]
– rose
). Coins of
Knossos
depicted the
labyrinth
or the mythical creature
minotaur
, a symbol of the
Minoan Crete
. Coins of
Melos
depicted a “mēlon” (μήλον –
apple
). Coins of
Thebes
depicted a Boeotian shield.

Corinthian stater with
pegasus

Coin of
Rhodes
with a
rose

Didrachm of
Selinunte
with a
celery

Coin of
Ephesus
with a
bee

Stater of
Olympia
depicting
Nike

Coin of
Melos
with an
apple

Obolus from
Stymphalia
with a
Stymphalian bird

Coin of
Thebes
with a Boeotian shield

Coin of Gela
with a man-headed bull,
the personification of the river
Gela

Didrachm of
Knossos
depicting the
Minotaur

Commemorative coins

Dekadrachm
of
Syracuse
^{[disambiguation

needed]}. Head of Arethusa or queen
Demarete. ΣΥΡΑΚΟΣΙΟΝ (of the Syracusians), around four dolphins

The use of
commemorative coins
to celebrate a victory or
an achievement of the state was a Greek invention. Coins are valuable, durable
and pass through many hands. In an age without newspapers or other mass media,
they were an ideal way of disseminating a political message. The first such coin
was a commemorative decadrachm issued by
Athens
following the Greek victory in the
Persian Wars
. On these coins that were struck
around 480 BC, the owl
of Athens, the goddess
Athena
‘s sacred bird, was depicted facing the
viewer with wings outstretched, holding a spray of olive leaves, the
olive tree
being Athena’s sacred plant and also
a symbol of peace and prosperity. The message was that Athens was powerful and
victorious, but also peace-loving. Another commemorative coin, a silver
dekadrachm known as ” Demareteion”, was minted at
Syracuse
at approximately the same time to
celebrate the defeat of the
Carthaginians
. On the obverse it bears a
portrait of
Arethusa
or queen Demarete.

Ancient Greek coins
today

Collections of Ancient Greek coins are held by museums around the world, of
which the collections of the
British Museum
, the
American Numismatic Society
, and the
Danish National Museum
are considered to be the
finest. The American Numismatic Society collection comprises some 100,000
ancient Greek coins from many regions and mints, from Spain and North Africa to
Afghanistan. To varying degrees, these coins are available for study by
academics and researchers.

There is also an active collector market for Greek coins. Several auction
houses in Europe and the United States specialize in ancient coins (including
Greek) and there is also a large on-line market for such coins.

Hoards of Greek coins are still being found in Europe, Middle East, and North
Africa, and some of the coins in these hoards find their way onto the market.
Coins are the only art form from the Ancient world which is common enough and
durable enough to be within the reach of ordinary collectors.