Claudius
–
Roman Emperor
: 41-54 A.D. –
Bronze 20mm (6.36 grams) of
Aigai
in
Aeolis
Apollodoros, magistrate
Reference:
RPC 2429; SNG Cop 22
TI ΚΛΑΥΔΙΟС ΚΑΙСΑΡ CEBACTOC,Â
laureate head right.
ΕΠΙ ΑΠΟΛΛΟΔΩΡΟΥ ΠΟ ΥΙΟΥ СΑΛΕΟΥ, ΑΙΓ-ΑΙΩΝ, Apollo standing right, holding taeniaÂ
and laurel branch.
You are bidding on the exact item pictured,Â
provided with a Certificate of Authenticity and Lifetime Guarantee ofÂ
Authenticity.
In
Greek
and
Roman mythology
,
Apollo, is one of the mostÂ
important and diverse of the
Olympian deities
. The ideal of the
kouros
(a beardless youth), Apollo has beenÂ
variously recognized as a god of light and the sun; truth and prophecy;
archery
; medicine and healing; music, poetry,Â
and the arts; and more. Apollo is the son of
Zeus and Leto
, and has a
twin
sister, the chaste huntress
Artemis
. Apollo is known in Greek-influenced
Etruscan mythology
as Apulu. Apollo wasÂ
worshiped in both
ancient Greek
and
Roman religion
, as well as in the modern
Greco
–Roman
Neopaganism
.
As the patron of Delphi
(Pythian Apollo), Apollo was an
oracular
god — the prophetic deity of the
Delphic Oracle
. Medicine and healing wereÂ
associated with Apollo, whether through the god himself or mediated through hisÂ
son Asclepius
, yet Apollo was also seen as a godÂ
who could bring ill-health and deadly
plague
as well as one who had the ability toÂ
cure. Amongst the god’s custodial charges, Apollo became associated withÂ
dominion over
colonists
, and as the patron defender of herdsÂ
and flocks. As the leader of the
Muses (Apollon Musagetes) and director of their choir, ApolloÂ
functioned as the patron god of music and
poetry
.
Hermes
created the
lyre for him, and the instrument became a common
attribute
of Apollo. Hymns sung to Apollo wereÂ
called paeans
.
In Hellenistic times, especially during the third century BCE, as ApolloÂ
Helios he became identified among Greeks with
Helios
,
god of the sun
, and his sister ArtemisÂ
similarly equated with
Selene
,
goddess of the moon
. In Latin texts, on theÂ
other hand, Joseph Fontenrose declared himself unable to find any conflation ofÂ
Apollo with
Sol
among the
Augustan poets
of the first century, not evenÂ
in the conjurations of
Aeneas
and
Latinus
in
Aeneid
XII (161–215). Apollo and Helios/SolÂ
remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts until the thirdÂ
century CE.
Aigai, also Aigaiai (Ancient Greek:
Αἰγαί or
Αἰγαῖαι;
Latin
: Aegae or
Aegaeae;
Turkish
: Nemrutkale or
Nemrut Kalesi) was an
ancient Greek
city in
Aeolis
. AegaeÂ
is mentioned by both
Herodotus
Â
and Strabo
Â
as being a member of the Aeolian dodecapolis. It was also an important sanctuaryÂ
of Apollo
.Â
Aigai had its brightest period under the
Attalid dynasty
that ruled from nearby
Pergamon
inÂ
the 3rd and 2nd century BC.
The remains of the city are located near the modern village of
Yuntdağı Köseler
in
Manisa Province
,
Turkey
. TheÂ
archaeological site is situated at a rather high altitude almost on top of
Mount Gün
(Dağı), part of the mountain chain of
Yunt
(Dağları).
History
Plan of Aigai drawn by Richard Bohn in 1889
Initially the city was a possession of the
Lydian Empire
and later the
Achaemenid Empire
when it conquered the former. In the early fourth centuryÂ
BC it became part of the Kingdom of Pergamon. It changed hands from Pergamon toÂ
the
Seleucid Empire
, but was recaptured by
Attalus I
Â
of Pergamon in 218 BC. In the war between
Bithynia
Â
and Pergamon it was destroyed by
Prusias II of Bithynia
in 156 BC. After a peace was brokered by the
Romans
the city was compensated with hundred
talents
. Under the rule of Pergamon a market building and a temple to ApolloÂ
were constructed.
In 129 BC the Kingdom of Pergamon became part of the Roman Empire. The cityÂ
was destroyed by an earthquake in 17 AD and received aid for reconstruction fromÂ
emperor Tiberius
.
Layout
The city is situated on a plateau at the summit of the steep Gün DağıÂ
mountain, which can be climbed from the north. The plateau is surrounded by aÂ
wall with a length of 1.5 kilometers. On the eastern side are the remains of theÂ
three-story indoor market with a height of 11 meters and a length of 82 meters.Â
The upper floor of the Hellenistic building was renovated in Roman times. TheÂ
partially overgrown remains of many other buildings are scattered over the site.Â
These include the
acropolis
Â
which is laid out in terraces, an
odeon
, a
gymnasium
, a
bouleuterion
and the foundations of three temples.
About five kilometers to the east the foundations of a sanctuary of ApolloÂ
are found on the banks of the river which flows around the ruins. It was anÂ
IonicÂ
order
peripteros
temple from the first century BC. A
cella
which isÂ
six meters high and three
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Drusus Claudius Nero
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Tiberius Nero
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9. Unknown |
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2.
Nero Claudius Drusus
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10.
Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus
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5. Livia
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11. Aufidia
And Clasuia |
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1.Claudius |
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12.
Marcus Antonius Creticus
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6.
Mark Antony
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13.
Julia Antonia
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3.
Antonia Minor
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14.
Gaius Octavius
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7.
Octavia Minor
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15.
Atia Balba Caesonia
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Ancestry
In literature, Claudius and his contemporaries appear in the historical novel
The Roman by
MikaÂ
Waltari
. Canadian-born science fiction writer
A.Â
E. van Vogt
reimagined Robert Graves’ Claudius story in his two novels
Empire of the Atom and The Wizard of Linn.
On television, the actor
Freddie Jones
became famous for his role as Claudius in the 1968 British
television
Â
series The Caesars while the 1985 made-for-television
miniseries
A.D. features actor
Richard Kiley
as Claudius. There is also a reference to Claudius’Â
suppression of one of the coups against him in the movie
Gladiator
, though the incident is entirely fictional.
Claudius has been portrayed in film on several other occasions, including inÂ
the 1979 motion picture
Caligula
, the role being performed by
Giancarlo Badessi
in which the character was depicted as an idiot, inÂ
complete contrast to
Robert Graves
‘ portrait of Claudius as a cunning and deeply intelligent man.Â
In the parody
Gore Vidal’s Caligula
, which advertises itself as a remake of theÂ
original film, Claudius is portrayed by
GlennÂ
Shadix
.
Graves’s two books were also the basis for a
thirteen-part British television adaptation
produced by the
BBC
. The series starred
DerekÂ
Jacobi
as Claudius and
Patrick Stewart
as Sejanus, and was broadcast in 1976 on
BBC2
. It wasÂ
a substantial critical success, and won several
BAFTA
awards. The series was later broadcast in the
United States
on
Masterpiece Theatre
in 1977. The DVD release of the television seriesÂ
contains the "The Epic that Never Was" documentary.
In 1937 director
Josef von Sternberg
made an unsuccessful attempt to film
I, Claudius
, with
Charles Laughton
as Claudius. Unfortunately, the lead actress
MerleÂ
Oberon
suffered a near-fatal accident and the movie was never finished. TheÂ
surviving reels were finally shown in the documentary The Epic That Never WasÂ
in 1965, revealing some of Laughton’s most accomplished acting. The motionÂ
picture rights have been obtained by
ScottÂ
Rudin
, with a theatrical release planned for 2010.
Probably the most famous fictional representation of the Emperor ClaudiusÂ
were the books
I, Claudius
and
Claudius the God
(released in 1934 and 1935) by
Robert Graves
, both written in the
first-person
to give the reader the impression that they are Claudius’
autobiography
. Graves employed a fictive artifice to suggest that they wereÂ
recently discovered, genuine translations of Claudius’ writings. Claudius’Â
extant letters, speeches, and sayings were incorporated into the text (mostly inÂ
the second book, Claudius the God) in order to add authenticity.
InÂ
literature and film
The influence of historical study on Claudius is obvious. In his speech onÂ
Gallic senators, he uses a version of the founding of Rome identical to that ofÂ
Livy, his tutor in adolescence. The detail of his speech borders on theÂ
pedantic, a common mark of all his extant works, and he goes into longÂ
digressions on related matters. This indicates a deep knowledge of a variety ofÂ
historical subjects that he could not help but share. Many of the public worksÂ
instituted in his reign were based on plans first suggested by
Julius Caesar
. Levick believes this emulation of Caesar may have spread toÂ
all aspects of his policies.Â
His censorship seems to have been based on those of his ancestors, particularly
Appius Claudius Caecus
, and he used the office to put into place manyÂ
policies based on those of Republican times. This is when many of his religiousÂ
reforms took effect and his building efforts greatly increased during hisÂ
tenure. In fact, his assumption of the office of Censor may have been motivatedÂ
by a desire to see his academic labors bear fruit. For example, he believed (asÂ
most Romans) that his ancestor Appius Claudius Caecus had used the censorship toÂ
introduce the letter "R"
Â
and so used his own term to introduce his new letters.
Unfortunately, none of the actual works survive. They do live on as sourcesÂ
for the surviving histories of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Suetonius quotesÂ
Claudius’ autobiography once, and must have used it as a source numerous times.Â
Tacitus uses Claudius’ own arguments for the orthographical innovationsÂ
mentioned above, and may have used him for some of the more antiquarian passagesÂ
in his annals. Claudius is the source for numerous passages of
Pliny’s
Natural History
.
Claudius wrote copiously throughout his life.
Arnaldo Momigliano
Â
states that during the reign of Tiberius — which covers the peak of Claudius’Â
literary career — it became impolitic to speak of republican Rome. The trendÂ
among the young historians was to either write about the new empire or obscureÂ
antiquarian subjects. Claudius was the rare scholar who covered both. BesidesÂ
the history of Augustus’ reign that caused him so much grief, his major worksÂ
included an
Etruscan
history and eight volumes on
Carthaginian
Â
history, as well as an Etruscan Dictionary and a book on dice playing. DespiteÂ
the general avoidance of the imperatorial era, he penned a defense of
Cicero
againstÂ
the charges of Asinius Gallus. Modern historians have used this to determineÂ
both the nature of his politics and of the aborted chapters of his civil warÂ
history. He proposed a reform of the
Latin alphabet
by the addition of
three new letters
, two of which served the function of the modern letters
W and Y. He officially instituted the change during his censorship,Â
but they did not survive his reign. Claudius also tried to revive the old customÂ
of putting dots between different words (Classical Latin was written with noÂ
spacing). Finally, he wrote an eight-volume autobiography that SuetoniusÂ
describes as lacking in taste.Â
Since Claudius (like most of the members of his dynasty) heavily criticized hisÂ
predecessors and relatives in surviving speeches,Â
it is not hard to imagine the nature of Suetonius’ charge.
ScholarlyÂ
works and their impact
The modern diagnosis has changed several times in the past century. Prior to
WorldÂ
War II
,
infantile paralysis
(or polio) was widely accepted as the cause. This is theÂ
diagnosis used in
Robert Graves
‘
Claudius novels
, first published in the 1930s. Polio does not explain manyÂ
of the described symptoms, however, and a more recent theory implicates
cerebral palsy
as the cause, as outlined by Ernestine Leon.
Tourette syndrome
is also a likely candidate for Claudius’ symptoms.Â
As a person, ancient historians described Claudius as generous and lowbrow, aÂ
man who sometimes lunched with the
plebeians
.Â
They also paint him as bloodthirsty and cruel, overly fond of both
gladiatorial
Â
combat and executions, and very quick to anger (though Claudius himselfÂ
acknowledged the latter trait, and apologized publicly for his temper).Â
To them he was also overly trusting, and easily manipulated by his wives andÂ
freedmen.Â
But at the same time they portray him as paranoid and apathetic, dull and easilyÂ
confused.Â
The extant works of Claudius present a different view, painting a picture of anÂ
intelligent, scholarly, well-read, and conscientious administrator with an eyeÂ
to detail and justice. Thus, Claudius becomes an enigma. Since the discovery ofÂ
his "LetterÂ
to the Alexandrians" in the last century, much work has been done toÂ
rehabilitate Claudius and determine where the truth lies.
The historian
Suetonius
describes the physical manifestations of Claudius’ affliction inÂ
relatively good detail.Â
His knees were weak and gave way under him and his head shook. He stammered andÂ
his speech was confused. He slobbered and his nose ran when he was excited. The
Stoic
Seneca
states in his
Apocolocyntosis
that Claudius’ voice belonged to no land animal, andÂ
that his hands were weak as well;Â
however, he showed no physical deformity, as Suetonius notes that when calm andÂ
seated he was a tall, well-built figure of
dignitas
.Â
When angered or stressed, his symptoms became worse. Historians agree that thisÂ
condition improved upon his accession to the throne.Â
Claudius himself claimed that he had exaggerated his ailments to save his ownÂ
life.
Claudius’Â
affliction and personality
Nero was made joint heir with the underage Britannicus, married to OctaviaÂ
and heavily promoted. This was not as unusual as it seems to people acquaintedÂ
with modern hereditary monarchies.
Barbara Levick
notes that Augustus had named his grandson
Postumus Agrippa
and his stepson Tiberius joint heirs.Â
Tiberius named his great-nephew Caligula joint heir with his grandson
Tiberius Gemellus
. Adoption of adults or near adults was an old tradition inÂ
Rome when a suitable natural adult heir was unavailable. This was the caseÂ
during Britannicus’ minority. S.V. Oost suggests that Claudius had previouslyÂ
looked to adopt one of his sons-in-law to protect his own reign.
Faustus Sulla
, married to his daughter
Antonia
, was only descended from Octavia and Antony on one side — not closeÂ
enough to the imperial family to prevent doubts (that didn’t stop others fromÂ
making him the object of a coup attempt against Nero a few years later). BesidesÂ
which, he was the half brother of
Messalina
, and at this time those wounds were still fresh.
Nero was moreÂ
popular with the general public as the grandson of Germanicus and the directÂ
descendant of Augustus.
Despite this declaration, Claudius did marry once more. The ancient sourcesÂ
tell that his freedmen pushed three candidates, Caligula’s former wife
Lollia Paulina
, Claudius’s divorced second wife Aelia, and Claudius’s niece
Agrippina the younger
. According to Suetonius, Agrippina won out through herÂ
feminine wiles.Â
The truth is likely more political. The
coup
attempt by Silius probably made Claudius realize the weakness of hisÂ
position as a member of the Claudian but not the Julian family. This weaknessÂ
was compounded by the fact that he did not have an obvious adult heir,Â
Britannicus being just a boy. Agrippina was one of the few remaining descendantsÂ
of Augustus, and her son Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (later known as
Nero) was one ofÂ
the last males of the imperial family. Future coup attempts could rally aroundÂ
the pair, and Agrippina was already showing such ambition. It has been suggestedÂ
in recent times that the Senate may have pushed for the marriage to end the feudÂ
between the Julian and Claudian branches.Â
This feud dated back to Agrippina’s
mother’s
actions against Tiberius after the death of her husband Germanicus,Â
actions which Tiberius had gladly punished. In any case, Claudius acceptedÂ
Agrippina, and later adopted the newly mature Nero as his son.
In AD 38 or early 39, Claudius married
Valeria Messalina
, who was his first cousin once removed and closely alliedÂ
with Caligula’s circle. Shortly thereafter, she gave birth to a daughter
Claudia Octavia
. A son, first named Tiberius Claudius Germanicus, and laterÂ
known as Britannicus
, was born just after Claudius’ accession. This marriage ended inÂ
tragedy. The ancient historians allege that Messalina was a
nymphomaniac
who was regularly unfaithful to Claudius —
Tacitus
Â
states she went so far as to compete with a
prostitute
to see who could have the most sexual partners in a nightÂ
— and manipulated his policies in order to amass wealth. In AD 48, MessalinaÂ
married her lover
GaiusÂ
Silius
in a public ceremony while Claudius was at
Ostia
. Sources disagree as to whether or not she divorced the emperor first,Â
and whether the intention was to usurp the throne. Scramuzza, in his biography,Â
suggests that Silius may have convinced Messalina that Claudius was doomed, andÂ
the union was her only hope of retaining rank and protecting her children.Â
The historian Tacitus
suggests that Claudius’s ongoing term as Censor may have preventedÂ
him from noticing the affair before it reached such a critical point.Â
Whatever the case, the result was the execution of Silius, Messalina, and mostÂ
of her circle.Â
Claudius made the
Praetorians
promise to kill him if he ever married again.
Claudius married four times. His first marriage, to
Plautia Urgulanilla
, occurred after two failed betrothals (The first was toÂ
his distant cousin
Aemilia Lepida
, but was broken for political reasons. The second was to
Livia Medullina
, which ended with the bride’s sudden death on their weddingÂ
day). Urgulanilla was a relation of Livia’s confidant
Urgulania
.Â
During their marriage she gave birth to a son, Claudius Drusus. Unfortunately,Â
Drusus died of asphyxiation in his early teens, shortly after becoming engagedÂ
to the daughter of
Sejanus
.Â
Claudius later divorced Urgulanilla for adultery and on suspicion of murderingÂ
her sister-in-law Apronia. When Urgulanilla gave birth after the divorce,Â
Claudius repudiated the baby girl, Claudia, as the father was one of his ownÂ
freedmen. Soon after (possibly in AD 28), Claudius married
AeliaÂ
Paetina
, a relation of Sejanus. They had a daughter,
Claudia Antonia
. He later divorced her after the marriage became a politicalÂ
liability (although Leon (1948) suggests it may have been due to emotional andÂ
mental abuse by Aelia).
Claudius’ love life was unusual for an upper-class Roman of his day. As
Edward Gibbon
mentions, of the first fifteen emperors, "Claudius was theÂ
only one whose taste in love was entirely correct"—the implication being that heÂ
was the only one not to take
men
Â
or boys
Â
as lovers. Gibbon based this on Suetonius’ factual statement that "He had aÂ
great passion for women, but had no interest in men."Â
Suetonius and the other ancient authors used this against Claudius. They accusedÂ
him of being dominated by these same women and wives, of being
uxorious
, and of being a
womanizer
.
MarriagesÂ
and personal life
As time passed, Claudius was mostly forgotten outside of the historians’Â
accounts. His books were lost first, as their antiquarian subjects becameÂ
unfashionable. In the second century,
Pertinax
,Â
who shared his birthday, became emperor, overshadowing commemoration ofÂ
Claudius.
The main ancient historians
Tacitus
,
Suetonius
, and
CassiusÂ
Dio
all wrote after the last of the Flavians had gone. All three wereÂ
senators or equites. They took the side of the Senate in most conflictsÂ
with the princeps, invariably viewing him as being in the wrong. This resultedÂ
in biases, both conscious and unconscious. Suetonius lost access to the officialÂ
archives shortly after beginning his work. He was forced to rely on second-handÂ
accounts when it came to Claudius (with the exception of Augustus’ letters whichÂ
had been gathered earlier) and does not quote the emperor. Suetonius paintedÂ
Claudius as a ridiculous figure, belittling many of his acts and attributing theÂ
objectively good works to his retinue.Â
Tacitus wrote a narrative for his fellow senators and fitted each of theÂ
emperors into a simple mold of his choosing.Â
He wrote Claudius as a passive pawn and an idiot—going so far as to hide his useÂ
of Claudius as a source and omit Claudius’ character from his works.Â
Even his version of Claudius’ Lyons tablet speech is edited to be devoid of theÂ
emperor’s personality. Dio was less biased, but seems to have used Suetonius andÂ
Tacitus as sources. Thus the conception of Claudius as the weak fool, controlledÂ
by those he supposedly ruled, was preserved for the ages.
The
Flavians
, who had risen to prominence under Claudius, took a different tack.Â
They were in a position where they needed to shore up their legitimacy, but alsoÂ
justify the fall of the Julio-Claudians. They reached back to Claudius inÂ
contrast with Nero, to show that they were good associated with good.Â
Commemorative coins were issued of Claudius and his son Britannicus—who had beenÂ
a friend of the emperor
Titus
. WhenÂ
Nero’s Golden House was burned, the Temple of Claudius was finally completed onÂ
Caelian Hill.Â
However, as the Flavians became established, they needed to emphasize their ownÂ
credentials more, and their references to Claudius ceased. Instead, he was putÂ
down with the other emperors of the fallen dynasty.
Agrippina had sent away Narcissus shortly before Claudius’ death, and nowÂ
murdered the freedman. The last act of this secretary of letters was to burn allÂ
of Claudius’ correspondence—most likely so it could not be used against him andÂ
others in an already hostile new regime. Thus Claudius’ private words about hisÂ
own policies and motives were lost to history. Just as Claudius has criticizedÂ
his predecessors in official edicts (see below), Nero often criticized theÂ
deceased emperor and many of Claudius’ laws and edicts were disregarded underÂ
the reasoning that he was too stupid and senile to have meant them.Â
This opinion of Claudius, that he was indeed an old idiot, remained the officialÂ
one for the duration of Nero’s reign. Eventually Nero stopped referring to hisÂ
deified adoptive father at all, and realigned with his birth family. Claudius’Â
temple was left unfinished after only some of the foundation had been laid down.Â
Eventually the site was overtaken by Nero’s Golden House.
Claudius was deified by Nero and the Senate almost immediately.Â
Those who regard this homage as cynical should note that, cynical or not, such aÂ
move would hardly have benefited those involved, had Claudius been "hated", asÂ
some commentators, both modern and historic, characterize him. Many of Claudius’Â
less solid supporters quickly became Nero’s men. Claudius’ will had been changedÂ
shortly before his death to either recommend Nero and Britannicus jointly orÂ
perhaps just Britannicus, who would have been considered an adult man accordingÂ
to Roman law only in a few months.
In modern times, some authors have cast doubt on whether Claudius wasÂ
murdered or merely succumbed to illness or old age.Â
Some modern scholars claim the universality of the accusations in ancient textsÂ
lends credence to the crime.Â
History in those days could not be objectively collected or written, soÂ
sometimes amounted to committing whispered gossip to parchment, often yearsÂ
after the events, when the writer was no longer in danger of arrest. Claudius’Â
ashes were interred in the
Mausoleum of Augustus
on 24 October, after a funeral in the manner ofÂ
Augustus.
The general consensus of ancient historians was that Claudius was murdered byÂ
poison — possibly contained in mushrooms or on a feather — and died in the earlyÂ
hours of 13 October, AD 54. Accounts vary greatly. Some claim Claudius was inÂ
RomeÂ
while others claim he was in Sinuessa.Â
Some implicate either
Halotus
, hisÂ
taster,
Xenophon
, his doctor, or the infamous poisoner
Locusta
asÂ
the administrator of the fatal substance.Â
Some say he died after prolonged suffering following a single dose at dinner,Â
and some have him recovering only to be poisoned again.Â
Nearly all implicate his final wife, Agrippina, as the instigator. Agrippina andÂ
Claudius had become more combative in the months leading up to his death. ThisÂ
carried on to the point where Claudius openly lamented his bad wives, and beganÂ
to comment on Britannicus’ approaching manhood with an eye towards restoring hisÂ
status within the imperial family.Â
Agrippina had motive in ensuring the succession of Nero before Britannicus couldÂ
gain power.
Death,Â
deification, and reputation
Claudius also restored and adorned many of the venues around Rome. The oldÂ
wooden barriers of the Circus Maximus were replaced with ones made ofÂ
gold-ornamented marble.Â
A new section of the Circus was designated for seating the senators, whoÂ
previously had sat among the general public.Â
Claudius rebuilt Pompey’s Theater after it had been destroyed by fire, throwingÂ
special fights at the rededication which he observed from a special platform inÂ
the orchestra box.
A killer whale was actually seen in the harbor of Ostia, locked inÂ
combat with the emperor Claudius. She had come when he was completingÂ
the construction of the harbor, drawn there by the wreck of a shipÂ
bringing leather hides from Gaul, and feeding there over a number ofÂ
days, had made a furrow in the shallows: the waves had raised up such aÂ
mound of sand that she couldn’t turn around at all, and while she wasÂ
pursuing her banquet as the waves moved it shorewards, her back stuck upÂ
out of the water like the overturned keel of a boat. The emperor orderedÂ
that a large array of nets be stretched across the mouths of the harbor,Â
and setting out in person with the
Praetorian
cohorts gave a show to the Roman people, soldiersÂ
showering lances from attacking ships, one of which I saw swamped by theÂ
beast’s waterspout and sunk. — "Historia Naturalis" IX.14-15.
At Ostia, in front of a crowd of spectators, Claudius fought a
killer whale
which was trapped in the harbor. The event was witnessed by
Pliny the Elder
:
According to Suetonius, Claudius was extraordinarily fond of games. He isÂ
said to have risen with the crowd after gladiatorial matches and givenÂ
unrestrained praise to the fighters .Â
Claudius also presided over many new and original events. Soon after coming intoÂ
power, Claudius instituted games to be held in honor of his father on theÂ
latter’s birthday..Â
Annual games were also held in honor of his accession, and took place at theÂ
Praetorian camp where Claudius had first been proclaimed emperor..Â
Claudius performed the
Secular games
, marking the 800th anniversary of the founding of Rome.Â
Augustus had performed the same games less than a century prior. Augustus’Â
excuse was that the interval for the games was 110 years, not 100, but his dateÂ
actually did not qualify under either reasoning.Â
Claudius also presented naval battles to mark the attempted draining of theÂ
Fucine lake, as well as many other public games and shows.
PublicÂ
games and entertainments
Claudius, as the author of a treatise on Augustus’ religious reforms, feltÂ
himself in a good position to institute some of his own. He had strong opinionsÂ
about the proper form for state religion. He refused the request of AlexandrianÂ
Greeks to dedicate a temple to his divinity, saying that only gods may chooseÂ
new gods. He restored lost days to festivals and got rid of many extraneousÂ
celebrations added by Caligula. He reinstituted old observances and archaicÂ
language. Claudius was concerned with the spread of eastern mysteries within theÂ
city and searched for more Roman replacements. He emphasized the
Eleusinian mysteries
which had been practiced by so many during theÂ
Republic. He expelled foreign astrologers, and at the same time rehabilitatedÂ
the old Roman soothsayers (known as
haruspices
) as a replacement. He was especially hard on
Druidism
, because of its incompatibility with the Roman state religion andÂ
its proselytizing
activities. It is also reported that at one time he expelledÂ
the Jews from Rome, probably because the appearance of Christianity had causedÂ
unrest within the Jewish community.Â
Claudius opposed proselytizing in any religion, even in those regions where heÂ
allowed natives to worship freely. The results of all these efforts wereÂ
recognized even by Seneca, who has an ancient Latin god defend Claudius in hisÂ
satire.
ReligiousÂ
reforms
Regardless of the extent of their political power, the freedmen did manage toÂ
amass wealth through their positions.
Pliny the Elder
notes that several of them were richer than
Crassus
, the richest man of the
Republican
era.
The secretariat was divided into bureaus, with each being placed under theÂ
leadership of one freedman.
Narcissus
was the secretary of correspondence.
Pallas
became the secretary of the treasury.
Callistus
became secretary of justice. There was a fourth bureau forÂ
miscellaneous issues, which was put under
Polybius
until his execution for treason. The freedmen could also officiallyÂ
speak for the emperor, as when Narcissus addressed the troops in Claudius’ steadÂ
before the conquest of Britain. Since these were important positions, theÂ
senators were aghast at their being placed in the hands of former slaves. IfÂ
freedmen had total control of money, letters, and law, it seemed it would not beÂ
hard for them to manipulate the emperor. This is exactly the accusation putÂ
forth by the ancient sources. However, these same sources admit that theÂ
freedmen were loyal to Claudius.Â
He was similarly appreciative of them and gave them due credit for policiesÂ
where he had used their advice. However, if they showed treasonous inclinations,Â
the emperor did punish them with just force, as in the case of Polybius andÂ
Pallas’ brother,
Felix
. There is no evidence that the character of Claudius’ policies andÂ
edicts changed with the rise and fall of the various freedmen, suggesting thatÂ
he was firmly in control throughout.
Claudius was hardly the first emperor to use
freedmen
toÂ
help with the day-to-day running of the empire. He was, however, forced toÂ
increase their role as the powers of the
Princeps
Â
became more centralized and the burden larger. This was partly due to theÂ
ongoing hostility of the senate, as mentioned above, but also due to his respectÂ
for the senators. Claudius did not want free-born magistrates to have to serveÂ
under him, as if they were not peers.
TheÂ
Secretariat and centralization of powers
Several
coup
attempts were made during Claudius’ reign, resulting in the deaths ofÂ
many senators.
Appius Silanus
was executed early in Claudius’ reign under questionableÂ
circumstances. Shortly after, a large rebellion was undertaken by the SenatorÂ
Vinicianus and
Scribonianus
, the governor of
Dalmatia
Â
and gained quite a few senatorial supporters. It ultimately failed because ofÂ
the reluctance of Scribonianus’ troops, and the
suicide
ofÂ
the main conspirators. Many other senators tried different conspiracies and wereÂ
condemned. Claudius’ son-in-law
Pompeius Magnus
was executed for his part in a conspiracy with his fatherÂ
Crassus Frugi. Another plot involved the consulars Lusiius Saturninus, CorneliusÂ
Lupus, and Pompeius Pedo. In AD 46,
Asinius Gallus
, the grandson of
Asinius Pollio
, and Statilius Corvinus were exiled for a plot hatched withÂ
several of Claudius’ own freedmen.
Valerius Asiaticus
was executed without public trial for unknown reasons.Â
The ancient sources say the charge was
adultery
,Â
and that Claudius was tricked into issuing the punishment. However, ClaudiusÂ
singles out Asiaticus for special damnation in his speech on the Gauls, whichÂ
dates over a year later, suggesting that the charge must have been much moreÂ
serious. Asiaticus had been a claimant to the throne in the chaos followingÂ
Caligula’s death and a co-consul with the Statilius Corvinus mentioned above.Â
Most of these conspiracies took place before Claudius’ term as
Censor
, and may have induced him to review the Senatorial rolls. TheÂ
conspiracy of
GaiusÂ
Silius
in the year after his Censorship, AD 48, is detailed in the sectionÂ
discussing Claudius’ third wife,
Messalina
. Suetonius states that a total of 35 senators and 300 knights wereÂ
executed for offenses during Claudius’ reign.Â
Needless to say, the necessary responses to these conspiracies could not haveÂ
helped Senate-emperor relations.
Nevertheless, many in the Senate remained hostile to Claudius, and many plotsÂ
were made on his life. This hostility carried over into the historical accounts.Â
As a result, Claudius was forced to reduce the Senate’s power for efficiency.Â
The administration of Ostia was turned over to an imperial
Procurator
after construction of the port. Administration of many of theÂ
empire’s financial concerns was turned over to imperial appointees and freedmen.Â
This led to further resentment and suggestions that these same freedmen wereÂ
ruling the emperor.
In AD 47 he assumed the office of
Censor
with
Lucius Vitellius
, which had been allowed to lapse for some time. He struckÂ
the names of many senators and equites who no longer met qualifications, butÂ
showed respect by allowing them to resign in advance. At the same time, heÂ
sought to admit eligible men from the provinces. The
Lyons Tablet
preserves his speech on the admittance of Gallic senators, inÂ
which he addresses the Senate with reverence but also with criticism for theirÂ
disdain of these men. He also increased the number of
Patricians
by adding new families to the dwindling number of noble lines.Â
Here he followed the precedent of
Lucius Junius Brutus
and
Julius Caesar
.
If you accept these proposals, Conscript Fathers, say so at once andÂ
simply, in accordance with your convictions. If you do not accept them,Â
find alternatives, but do so here and now; or if you wish to take timeÂ
for consideration, take it, provided you do not forget that you must beÂ
ready to pronounce your opinion whenever you may be summoned to meet. ItÂ
ill befits the dignity of the Senate that the consul designate shouldÂ
repeat the phrases of the consuls word for word as his opinion, and thatÂ
every one else should merely say ‘I approve’, and that then, afterÂ
leaving, the assembly should announce ‘We debated’.
Claudius set about remodeling the Senate into a more efficient,Â
representative body. He chided the senators about their reluctance to debateÂ
bills introduced by himself, as noted in the fragments of a surviving speech:
Because of the circumstances of his accession, Claudius took great pains toÂ
please the Senate. During regular sessions, the emperor sat among the SenateÂ
body, speaking in turn. When introducing a law, he sat on a bench between theÂ
consuls in his position as Holder of the Power of
Tribune
(TheÂ
emperor could not officially serve as a Tribune of the Plebes as he was a
Patrician
, but it was a power taken by previous rulers). He refused toÂ
accept all his predecessors’ titles (including
Imperator
)Â
at the beginning of his reign, preferring to earn them in due course. He allowedÂ
the Senate to issue its own bronze coinage for the first time since Augustus. HeÂ
also put the imperial provinces of
Macedonia
and
Achaea
back under Senate control.
ClaudiusÂ
and the Senate
The last part of Claudius’ plan was to increase the amount of arable land inÂ
Italy. This was to be achieved by draining the
Fucine lake
, which would have the added benefit of making the nearby riverÂ
navigable year-round. AÂ
tunnel was dug through the lake bed, but the plan was a failure. The tunnel wasÂ
crooked and not large enough to carry the water, which caused it to back up whenÂ
opened. The resultant flood washed out a large gladiatorial exhibition held toÂ
commemorate the opening, causing Claudius to run for his life along with theÂ
other spectators. The draining of the lake was revisited many times in history,Â
including by emperors
Trajan
and
Hadrian
, and
Holy Roman Emperor
Frederick II
in the
MiddleÂ
Ages
. It was finally achieved by the Prince
Torlonia
in the 19th century, producing over 160,000 acres (650 km2)Â
of new arable land.Â
He expanded the Claudian tunnel to three times its original size.
The port at Ostia was part of Claudius’ solution to the constant grainÂ
shortages that occurred in winter, after the Roman shipping season. The otherÂ
part of his solution was to insure the ships of grain merchants who were willingÂ
to risk traveling to Egypt in the off-season. He also granted their sailorsÂ
special privileges, including citizenship and exemption from the
Lex Papia-Poppaea
, a law that regulated marriage. In addition, he repealedÂ
the taxes that Caligula
had instituted on food, and further reduced taxes on communitiesÂ
suffering drought
Â
or famine
.
He paid special attention to transportation. Throughout
Italy
and theÂ
provinces he built roads and canals. Among these was a large canal leading fromÂ
the Rhine
to theÂ
sea, as well as a road from Italy to Germany — both begun by his father, Drusus.Â
Closer to Rome, he built a navigable canal on the
Tiber
, leading to
Portus
, his newÂ
port just north of
Ostia
. This port was constructed in a semicircle with two
moles
and a lighthouse at its mouth. The construction also had the effect ofÂ
reducing flooding in Rome.
Claudius embarked on many public works throughout his reign, both in theÂ
capital and in the provinces. He built two
aqueducts
, the
AquaÂ
Claudia
, begun by
Caligula
,Â
and the Anio Novus
. These entered the city in AD 52 and met at the famous
Porta Maggiore
. He also restored a third, the
Aqua Virgo
.
The Porta Maggiore in Rome
PublicÂ
works
Numerous edicts were issued throughout Claudius’ reign. These were on aÂ
number of topics, everything from medical advice to moral judgments. Two famousÂ
medical examples are one promoting
Yew
Â
juice as a cure for snakebite,Â
and another promoting public flatulence for good health.Â
One of the more famous edicts concerned the status of sick slaves. Masters hadÂ
been abandoning ailing slaves at the
templeÂ
of Aesculapius
to die, and then reclaiming them if they lived. ClaudiusÂ
ruled that slaves who recovered after such treatment would be free. Furthermore,Â
masters who chose to kill slaves rather than take the risk were liable to beÂ
charged with murder.
Claudius also settled disputes in the provinces. He freed the island of
Rhodes
fromÂ
Roman rule for their good faith and exempted
Troy from taxes.Â
Early in his reign, the
Greeks
and
Jews
of Alexandria
sent him two embassies at once after riots broke out between theÂ
two communities. This resulted in the famous "Letter to the Alexandrians", whichÂ
reaffirmed Jewish rights in the city but also forbade them to move in moreÂ
families en masse. According to
Josephus
,Â
he then reaffirmed the rights and freedoms of all the Jews in the empire.Â
An investigator of Claudius’ discovered that many old Roman citizens based inÂ
the modern city of Trento
were not in fact citizens.Â
The emperor issued a declaration that they would be considered to holdÂ
citizenship from then on, since to strip them of their status would cause majorÂ
problems. However, in individual cases, Claudius punished false assumption ofÂ
citizenship harshly, making it a capital offense. Similarly, any freedmen foundÂ
to be impersonating equestrians were sold back into slavery.
Claudius personally judged many of the legal cases tried during his reign.Â
Ancient historians have many complaints about this, stating that his judgmentsÂ
were variable and sometimes did not follow the law.Â
He was also easily swayed. Nevertheless, Claudius paid detailed attention to theÂ
operation of the judicial system. He extended the summer court session, as wellÂ
as the winter term, by shortening the traditional breaks. Claudius also made aÂ
law requiring plaintiffs to remain in the city while their cases were pending,Â
as defendants had previously been required to do. These measures had the effectÂ
of clearing out the docket. The minimum age for jurors was also raised to 25 inÂ
order to ensure a more experienced jury pool.
JudicialÂ
and legislative affairs
Claudius conducted a
census
in AD 48Â
that found 5,984,072 Roman citizens,Â
an increase of around a million since the census conducted at Augustus’ death.Â
He had helped increase this number through the foundation of Roman colonies thatÂ
were granted blanket
citizenship
. These colonies were often made out of existing communities,Â
especially those with elites who could rally the populace to the Roman cause.Â
Several colonies were placed in new provinces or on the border of the empire inÂ
order to secure Roman holdings as quickly as possible.
In AD 43, Claudius sent
Aulus Plautius
with four
legions
Â
to Britain (Britannia) after an appeal from an ousted tribal ally.Â
Britain was an attractive target for Rome because of its material wealth —Â
particularly mines and
slaves
. ItÂ
was also a haven for Gallic
rebels and the like, and so could not be left alone much longer.Â
Claudius himself traveled to the island after the completion of initialÂ
offensives, bringing with him reinforcements and elephants. The latter must haveÂ
made an impression on the
Britons
when they were used in the capture of
Camulodunum
. He left after 16 days, but remained in the provinces for someÂ
time. The Senate granted him a
triumph
for his efforts, as only members of the imperial family were allowedÂ
such honors. Claudius later lifted this restriction for some of his conqueringÂ
generals. He was granted the honorific "Britannicus" but only accepted it onÂ
behalf of his son, never using the title himself. When the British general
Caractacus
was captured in AD 50, Claudius granted him
clemency
. Caractacus lived out his days on land provided by the Roman state,Â
an unusual end for an enemy commander.
Under Claudius, the empire underwent its first major expansion since theÂ
reign of Augustus. The provinces of
Thrace
,
Noricum
,
Pamphylia
,
Lycia
, and
Judea
were
annexed
Â
under various circumstances during his term. The annexation of
Mauretania
,Â
begun under Caligula, was completed after the defeat of rebel forces, and theÂ
official division of the former client kingdom into two imperial provinces. TheÂ
most important new expansion was the
conquest of Britannia
.
ExpansionÂ
of the empire
Because he was proclaimed emperor on the initiative of the Praetorian GuardÂ
instead of the Senate — the first emperor thus proclaimed — Claudius’ reputeÂ
suffered at the hands of commentators (such as
Seneca
). Moreover, he was the first Emperor who resorted to
bribery
as aÂ
means to secure army loyalty. Tiberius and Augustus had both left gifts to theÂ
army and guard in their
wills
,Â
and upon Caligula’s death the same would have been expected, even if no willÂ
existed. Claudius remained grateful to the guard, however, issuing coins withÂ
tributes to the praetorians in the early part of his reign.
Claudius took several steps to legitimize his rule against potentialÂ
usurpers, most of them emphasizing his place within the Julio-Claudian family.Â
He adopted the name "Caesar" as a
cognomen
—Â
the name still carried great weight with the populace. In order to do so, heÂ
dropped the cognomen "Nero" which he had adopted as paterfamilias of the ClaudiiÂ
Nerones when his brother Germanicus was adopted out. While he had never beenÂ
adopted by Augustus or his successors, he was the grandson of Octavia, and soÂ
felt he had the right. He also adopted the name "Augustus" as the two previousÂ
emperors had done at their accessions. He kept the honorific "Germanicus" inÂ
order to display the connection with his heroic brother. He deified his paternalÂ
grandmother Livia in order to highlight her position as wife of the divineÂ
Augustus. Claudius frequently used the term "filius Drusi" (son of Drusus) inÂ
his titles, in order to remind the people of his legendary father and lay claimÂ
to his reputation.
The Senate quickly met and began debating a change of government, but thisÂ
eventually devolved into an argument over which of them would be the new
Princeps
.Â
When they heard of the Praetorians’ claim, they demanded that Claudius beÂ
delivered to them for approval, but he refused, sensing the danger that wouldÂ
come with complying. Some historians, particularly
Josephus
,Â
claim that Claudius was directed in his actions by the
Judean
King
Herod Agrippa
. However, an earlier version of events by the same ancientÂ
author downplays Agrippa’s roleÂ
— so it is not known how large a hand he had in things. Eventually the SenateÂ
was forced to give in and, in return, Claudius pardoned nearly all theÂ
assassins.
On 24 January, AD 41, Caligula was assassinated by a broad-based
conspiracy
(including Praetorian commander
Cassius Chaerea
and several
Senators
). There is no evidence that Claudius had a direct hand in the
assassination
, although it has been argued that he knew about the plot —Â
particularly since he left the scene of the crime shortly before his nephew wasÂ
murdered.Â
However, after the deaths of
Caligula’s wife
Â
and daughter, it became apparent that Cassius intended to go beyond the terms ofÂ
the conspiracy and wipe out the imperial family. In the chaos following theÂ
murder, Claudius witnessed the
German
guardÂ
cut down several uninvolved noblemen, including many of his friends. He fled toÂ
the palace to hide. According to tradition, a Praetorian named Gratus found himÂ
hiding behind a curtain and suddenly declared him
princeps
.Â
A section of the guard may have planned in advance to seek out Claudius, perhapsÂ
with his approval. They reassured him that they were not one of the battalionsÂ
looking for revenge. He was spirited away to the Praetorian camp and put underÂ
their protection.
AccessionÂ
as emperor
Reign
After the death of Tiberius the new emperor
Caligula
Â
(the son of Claudius’ brother
Germanicus
)Â
recognized Claudius to be of some use. He appointed Claudius his co-consul in ADÂ
37 in order to emphasize the memory of Caligula’s deceased father Germanicus.Â
Despite this, Caligula relentlessly tormented his uncle: playing practicalÂ
jokes, charging him enormous sums of money, humiliating him before the Senate,Â
and the like. According to
CassiusÂ
Dio
, as well a possible surviving portrait, Claudius became very sickly andÂ
thin by the end of Caligula’s reign, most likely due to stress.
Despite the disdain of the imperial family, it seems that from very early onÂ
the general public respected Claudius. At Augustus’ death, the
equites
, or knights, chose Claudius to head their delegation. When hisÂ
house burned down, the Senate demanded it be rebuilt at public expense. TheyÂ
also requested that Claudius be allowed to debate in the senate. Tiberius turnedÂ
down both motions, but the sentiment remained. During the period immediatelyÂ
after the death of Tiberius’ son,
Drusus
, Claudius was pushed by some quarters as a potential heir. This againÂ
suggests the political nature of his exclusion from public life. However, asÂ
this was also the period during which the power and terror of the Praetorian
Sejanus
wasÂ
at its peak, Claudius chose to downplay this possibility.
When Augustus died in AD 14, Claudius — then 23 — appealed to his uncle
Tiberius
toÂ
allow him to begin the
cursus honorum
. Tiberius, the new emperor, responded by grantingÂ
Claudius consular ornaments. Claudius requested office once more and wasÂ
snubbed. Since the new emperor was not any more generous than the old, ClaudiusÂ
gave up hope of public office and retired to a scholarly, private life.
Gratus proclaims Claudius emperor. Detail from A Roman EmperorÂ
41AD, by
Lawrence Alma-Tadema
. Oil on canvas, c. 1871.
Ironically, it was his work as a budding
historian
Â
that destroyed his early career. According to Vincent Scramuzza and others,Â
Claudius began work on a history of the
Civil Wars
that was either too truthful or too critical of Octavian.Â
In either case, it was far too early for such an account, and may have onlyÂ
served to remind Augustus that Claudius was Antony’s descendant. His mother andÂ
grandmother quickly put a stop to it, and this may have proved to them thatÂ
Claudius was not fit for public office. He could not be trusted to toe theÂ
existing party line. When he returned to the narrative later in life, ClaudiusÂ
skipped over the wars of the second triumvirate altogether. But the damage wasÂ
done, and his family pushed him to the background. When the
Arch
of Pavia
Â
was erected to honor the imperial clan in AD 8, Claudius’ name (now TiberiusÂ
Claudius Nero Germanicus after his elevation to
paterfamilias
of Claudii Nerones on the adoption of his brother) wasÂ
inscribed on the edge—past the deceased princes,
Gaius
Â
and Lucius
, and Germanicus’ children. There is some speculation that theÂ
inscription was added by Claudius himself decades later, and that he originallyÂ
did not appear at all.
In 9 BC, Drusus unexpectedly died on campaign in Germania, possibly fromÂ
illness. Claudius was then left to be raised by his mother, who never remarried.Â
When Claudius’ disability became evident, the relationship with his familyÂ
turned sour. Antonia referred to him as a monster, and used him as a standardÂ
for stupidity. She seems to have passed her son off on his grandmother Livia forÂ
a number of years.Â
Livia was little kinder, and often sent him short, angry letters of reproof. HeÂ
was put under the care of a "former mule-driver"Â
to keep him disciplined, under the logic that his condition was due to lazinessÂ
and a lack of will-power. However, by the time he reached his teenage years hisÂ
symptoms apparently waned and his family took some notice of his scholarlyÂ
interests. In AD 7, Livy
was hired to tutor him in history, with the assistance of SulpiciusÂ
Flavus. He spent a lot of his time with the latter and the philosopher
Athenodorus
. Augustus, according to a letter, was surprised at the clarityÂ
of Claudius’ oratory.Â
Expectations about his future began to increase.
His maternal grandparents were
MarkÂ
Antony
and
Octavia Minor
, Caesar Augustus’ sister, and as such he was the great-greatÂ
grandnephew of
GaiusÂ
Julius Caesar
. His paternal grandparents were
Livia
, Augustus’Â
third wife, and
Tiberius Claudius Nero
. During his reign, Claudius revived the rumor thatÂ
his father Drusus was actually the illegitimate son of Augustus, to give theÂ
false appearance that Augustus was Claudius’ paternal grandfather.
Claudius was born on 1 August 10 BC, in
Lugdunum
,
Gaul, on the day ofÂ
the dedication of an altar to
Augustus
.Â
His parents were
Nero Claudius Drusus
and
Antonia
, and he had two older siblings named
Germanicus
Â
and Livilla
.Â
Antonia may have had two other children who died young, as well.
FamilyÂ
and early life
//
Despite his lack of political experience, Claudius proved to be an ableÂ
administrator and a great builder of public works. His reign saw an expansion ofÂ
the empire, including the
conquest of Britain
. He took a personal interest in the law, presided atÂ
public trials, and issued up to 20 edicts a day; however, he was seen asÂ
vulnerable throughout his rule, particularly by the nobility. Claudius wasÂ
constantly forced to shore up his position. This resulted in the deaths of many
senators
. Claudius also suffered setbacks in his personal life, one of whichÂ
may have led to his murder. These events damaged his reputation among theÂ
ancient writers, though more recent historians have revised this opinion.
He was reportedly afflicted with some type of disability, and his family hadÂ
virtually excluded him from public office until his
consulship
withÂ
his nephew Caligula
in AD 37. This infirmity may have saved him from the fate of manyÂ
other Roman nobles during the purges of
Tiberius
‘Â
and Caligula’s reigns; potential enemies did not see him as a serious threat toÂ
them. His very survival led to his being declared emperor (reportedly becauseÂ
the
Praetorian Guard
insisted) after Caligula’s assassination, at which point heÂ
was the last adult male of his family.
Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (1 August 10 BC – 13Â
October AD 54) (Tiberius Claudius Drusus from birth to AD 4, then
Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus from then until his accession) was theÂ
fourth
RomanÂ
Emperor
, a member of the
Julio-Claudian dynasty
, ruling from 24 January AD 41 to his death in AD 54.Â
Born in Lugdunum
in Gaul
Â
(modern-day Lyon
,
France
), to
Drusus
and
Antonia Minor
, he was the first Roman Emperor to be born outside
Italia
.
| SonÂ
ofÂ
Nero Claudius Drusus andÂ
Antonia | Brother of
Germanicus andÂ
Livilla |Â
Husband of Plautia Urgulanilla, Aelia Paetina,Â
Valeria Messalina and AgrippinaÂ
Junior | Father of
Britannicus,Â
Claudia Octavia and Claudia Antonia | GranduncleÂ
and adoptive step-father ofÂ
Nero | Nephew ofÂ
Tiberius | Grandson of
Livia,Â
MarkÂ
Antony and
Octavia | Uncle ofÂ
Nero Caesar,Â
Drusus Caesar,Â
Caligula,Â
AgrippinaÂ
Junior,Â
Drusilla, Julia Livilla, Tiberius Gemellus, Germanicus Gemellus andÂ
Livia Julia | Brother-in-law of Gaius Caesar, Drusus andÂ
Agrippina SeniorÂ
|
Claudius –
Roman Emperor
: 41-54 A.D.
Path to Aigai
|
Facade of market hall seen from the interior |
Bouleuterion |
Odeon |
Since 2004 the site is being excavated by Ersin Doğer of
EgeÂ
University
in
Izmir
. By 2010 the access road, the bouleuterion, the odeon, shops, numerousÂ
water pipes and large parts of the market hall were uncovered. For the comingÂ
years it is planned to re-erect the market hall’s facade with the originalÂ
stones.
The first western visitors of Aigai were
William Mitchell Ramsay
and
Salomon Reinach
in 1880. They reported about their visit in the
Journal of Hellenic Studies
Â
and the Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique. They were followed by
RichardÂ
Bohn
and
Carl Schuchhardt
, who examined the site as a part of the excavations inÂ
Pergamon.
Excavation historyy
monoliths
|