Greek City Authentic Ancient Greek Coin 350-100BC Athena War Magic Zeus i50307

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Authentic Ancient

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Ancient

Bronze 9mm (1.03  grams) circa 350-100 B.C.
Head of Athena right.
Head of Zeus right.

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In
Greek religion
and
mythology
, Athena or Athene, also
referred to as Pallas Athena/Athene , is the goddess of wisdom, courage,
inspiration, civilization, law and justice, just warfare, mathematics, strength,
strategy, the arts, crafts, and skill.
Minerva
is the
Roman goddess

identified with
Athena.

Athena is also a shrewd companion of

heroes and is the
goddess
of heroic endeavour. She is the
virgin
patroness of
Athens
. The Athenians founded the
Parthenon
on the Acropolis of her namesake
city, Athens (Athena Parthenos), in her honour.

Athena’s veneration as the patron of Athens seems to have existed from the
earliest times, and was so persistent that archaic myths about her were recast
to adapt to cultural changes. In her role as a protector of the city (polis),
many people throughout the Greek world worshiped Athena as Athena Polias
(Ἀθηνᾶ Πολιάς “Athena of the city”). The city of
Athens
and the goddess Athena essentially bear
the same name, “Athenai” meaning “[many] Athenas”.

Patroness

Athenian
tetradrachm
representing the
goddess Athena

Athena
as the goddess of philosophy became an aspect of the cult in Classical Greece
during the late 5th century B.C. She is the patroness of various crafts,
especially of weaving
, as Athena Ergane, and was
honored as such at festivals such as
Chalceia
. The metalwork of weapons also fell
under her patronage. She led battles (Athena
Promachos or the warrior maiden Athena Parthenos) as the
disciplined, strategic side of war, in contrast to her brother

Ares, the patron of violence, bloodlust and slaughter—”the raw force
of war”. Athena’s wisdom includes the cunning intelligence (metis) of
such figures as Odysseus
. Not only was this version of Athena
the opposite of Ares in combat, it was also the polar opposite of the serene
earth goddess version of the deity, Athena Polias.

Athena appears in Greek mythology as the patron and helper of many heroes,
including Odysseus
,
Jason
, and
Heracles
. In
Classical Greek
myths, she never consorts with
a lover, nor does she ever marry,earning the title Athena Parthenos. A
remnant of archaic myth depicts her as the adoptive mother of
Erechtheus
/Erichthonius
through the foiled rape by
Hephaestus
. Other variants relate that
Erichthonius, the serpent that accompanied Athena, was born to
Gaia
: when the rape failed, the semen landed on
Gaia and impregnated her. After Erechthonius was born, Gaia gave him to Athena.

Though Athena is a goddess of war strategy, she disliked fighting without
purpose and preferred to use wisdom to settle predicaments.The goddess only
encouraged fighting for a reasonable cause or to resolve conflict. As patron of
Athens she fought in the Trojan war on the side of the Achaeans.

Mythology

Lady of Athens

Athena competed with
Poseidon
to be the patron deity of Athens,
which was yet unnamed, in a version of one
founding myth
. They agreed that each would give
the Athenians one gift and that the Athenians would choose the gift they
preferred. Poseidon struck the ground with his
trident
and a salt water spring sprang up; this
gave them a means of trade and water—Athens at its height was a significant sea
power, defeating the
Persian
fleet at the
Battle of Salamis
—but the water was salty and
not very good for drinking.

Athena, however, offered them the first domesticated
olive tree
. The Athenians (or their king,
Cecrops
) accepted the olive tree and with it
the patronage of Athena, for the olive tree brought wood, oil, and food.
Robert Graves
was of the opinion that
“Poseidon’s attempts to take possession of certain cities are political myths”
which reflect the conflict between matriarchal and patriarchal religions.

Other sites of cult

Athena also was the patron goddess of several other Greek cities, notably
Sparta, where the archaic cult of
Athena Alea
had its sanctuaries in the
surrounding villages of
Mantineia
and, notably,
Tegea
. In Sparta itself, the temple of Athena
Khalkíoikos (Athena “of the Brazen House”, often
latinized
as Chalcioecus) was the
grandest and located on the Spartan acropolis; presumably it had a roof of
bronze. The forecourt of the Brazen House was the place where the most solemn
religious functions in Sparta took place.

Tegea was an important religious center of ancient Greece, containing the
Temple of Athena Alea
. The temenos was founded by
Aleus
,
Pausanias
was informed. Votive bronzes at the
site from the Geometric and Archaic periods take the forms of horses and deer;
there are
sealstone
and
fibulae
. In the Archaic period the nine
villages that underlie Tegea banded together in a
synoecism
to form one city. Tegea was listed in
Homer
‘s
Catalogue of Ships
as one of the cities that
contributed ships and men for the
Achaean assault on Troy
.

Judgment of Paris

Aphrodite is being surveyed by Paris, while Athena (the leftmost
figure) and Hera stand nearby.
El Juicio de Paris
by
Enrique Simonet
, ca. 1904

All the gods and goddesses as well as various mortals were invited to the
marriage of Peleus
and
Thetis
(the eventual parents of
Achilles
). Only
Eris
, goddess of discord, was not invited. She
was annoyed at this, so she arrived with a golden apple inscribed with the word
καλλίστῃ (kallistēi, “for the fairest”), which she threw among the goddesses.
Aphrodite, Hera, and Athena all claimed to be the fairest, and thus the rightful
owner of the apple.

The goddesses chose to place the matter before Zeus, who, not wanting to
favor one of the goddesses, put the choice into the hands of Paris, a

Trojan prince. After bathing in the spring of
Mount Ida
(where Troy was situated), the
goddesses appeared before Paris. The goddesses undressed and presented
themselves to Paris naked, either at his request or for the sake of winning.

Paris is awarding the apple to Aphrodite, while Athena makes a face.
Urteil des Paris by
Anton Raphael Mengs
, ca. 1757

Still, Paris could not decide, as all three were ideally beautiful, so they
resorted to bribes. Hera tried to bribe Paris with control over all

Asia and Europe
, while Athena offered wisdom, fame and
glory in battle, but Aphrodite came forth and whispered to Paris that if he were
to choose her as the fairest he would have the most beautiful mortal woman in
the world as a wife, and he accordingly chose her. This woman was
Helen
, who was, unfortunately for Paris,
already married to King
Menelaus
of
Sparta
. The other two goddesses were enraged by
this and through Helen’s abduction by Paris they brought about the
Trojan War
.

The Parthenon
, Temple of Athena
Parthenos

Masculinity and
feminism

Athena had an “androgynous compromise” that allowed her traits and what she
stood for to be attributed to male and female rulers alike over the course of
history (such as Marie de’ Medici, Anne of Austria, Christina of Sweden, and
Catherine the Great)

J.J. Bachofen advocated that Athena was originally a maternal figure stable
in her security and poise but was caught up and perverted by a patriarchal
society; this was especially the case in Athens. The goddess adapted but could
very easily be seen as a god. He viewed it as “motherless paternity in the place
of fatherless maternity” where once altered, Athena’s character was to be
crystallized as that of a patriarch.

Whereas Bachofen saw the switch to paternity on Athena’s behalf as an
increase of power, Freud on the contrary perceived Athena as an “original mother
goddess divested of her power”. In this interpretation, Athena was demoted to be
only Zeus’s daughter, never allowed the expression of motherhood. Still more
different from Bachofen’s perspective is the lack of role permanency in Freud’s
view: Freud held that time and differing cultures would mold Athena to stand for
what was necessary to them.

Ancient Greece is the civilization belonging to the period of
Greek history lasting from the
Archaic period
of the 8th to 6th centuries BC
to 146 BC and the
Roman
conquest of
Greece
after the
Battle of Corinth
. At the center of this time
period is Classical Greece
, which flourished during the
5th to 4th centuries BC, at first under
Athenian
leadership successfully repelling the
military threat of
Persian invasion
. The
Athenian Golden Age
ends with the defeat of
Athens at the hands of Sparta
in the

Peloponnesian War in 404 BC. Following the conquests of
Alexander the Great
,
Hellenistic civilization
flourished from

Central Asia to the western end of the

Mediterranean Sea.

Classical
Greek culture
had a powerful influence on the
Roman
Empire, which carried a version of it to many parts of the
Mediterranean region
and
Europe,
for which reason Classical Greece is generally considered to be the seminal
culture which provided the foundation of
Western civilization
.

Chronology

There are no fixed or universally agreed upon dates for the beginning or the
end of
Classical Antiquity
. It is typically taken to
last from the 8th century BC until the 6th century AD, or for about 1,300 years.

Classical Antiquity in Greece is preceded by the

Greek Dark Ages (c.1100-c.750 BC), archaeologically characterised by
the
protogeometric
and
geometric style
of designs on pottery,
succeeded by the
Orientalizing Period
, a strong influence of
Syro-Hittite
,
Assyrian
,
Phoenician
and
Egyptian
cultures.

Traditionally, the
Archaic period
of ancient Greece is taken in
the wake of this strong Orientalizing influence during the 8th century BC, which
among other things brought the
alphabetic script
to Greece, marking the
beginning of Greek literature (Homer,
Hesiod).
The Archaic period gives way to the
Classical period
around 500 BC, in turn
succeeded by the Hellenistic period
at the death of
Alexander the Great
in 323 BC.

The history of Greece
during Classical Antiquity
may thus be subdivided into the following periods:^[4]

• The
  Archaic period
  (c.750-c.500 BC) follows, in
  which artists made larger free-standing
  sculptures
  in stiff, hieratic poses with
  the dreamlike ‘archaic
  smile‘. The Archaic period is often taken to end with the
  overthrow of the last tyrant of
  Athens
  in 510 BC.
• The Classical period (c.500-323 BC) is characterised by a style which
  was considered by later observers to be exemplary (i.e. ‘classical’)—for
  instance the Parthenon
  . Politically, the Classical
  Period was dominated by
  Athens
  and the
  
  Delian League during the 5th century, displaced by
  Spartan hegemony
  during the early 4th
  century BC, before power shifted to
  Thebes
  and the
  Boeotian League
  and finally to the
  League of Corinth
  led by
  Macedon
  .
• The Hellenistic period (323-146 BC) is when Greek culture and power
  expanded into the near and
  middle east
  . This period begins with the
  death of Alexander and ends with the Roman conquest.
• Roman Greece
  , the period between Roman
  victory over the
  Corinthians
  at the
  Battle of Corinth in
  146 BC and the
  establishment of Byzantium
  by
  Constantine
  as the capital of the
  
  Roman Empire in 330 AD.
• the
  final phase of Antiquity
  is the period of
  Christianization
  during the later 4th to
  early 6th centuries, taken to be complete with the closure of the
  Neoplatonic
  
  Academy
  by
  
  Justinian I in 529 AD.

Historiography

The historical period of ancient Greece is unique in world history as the
first period attested directly in proper

historiography, while earlier ancient history or
proto-history
is known by much more
circumstantial evidence, such as annals or king lists, and pragmatic epigraphy.

Herodotus is widely known as the “father of history”, his
Histories
being eponymous of the entire
field
. Written between the 450s and 420s BC,
the scope of Herodotus’ work reaches about a century into the past, discussing
6th-century historical figures such as

Darius I of Persia,

Cambyses II and Psamtik III
, and alludes to some 8th-century
ones such as Candaules
.

Herodotus was succeeded by authors such as

Thucydides, Xenophon
,

Demosthenes, Plato
and
Aristotle.
Most of these authors were either
Athenians
or pro-Athenians, which is why far
more is known about the history and politics of Athens than of many other
cities. Their scope is further limited by a focus on political, military and
diplomatic history, ignoring economic and social history.^[5]

History

In the 8th century BC, Greece began to emerge from the Dark Ages which
followed the fall of the Mycenaean civilization. Literacy had been lost and
Mycenaean script
forgotten, but the Greeks
adopted the Phoenician alphabet
, modifying it to create the

Greek alphabet. From about the 9th century BC written records begin
to appear.^[6]
Greece was divided into many small self-governing communities, a pattern largely
dictated by Greek geography, where every island, valley and plain is cut off
from its neighbours by the sea or mountain ranges.^[7]

The Lelantine War
(c.710-c.650 BC) was an ongoing
conflict with the distinction of being the earliest documented war of the
ancient Greek period. It was fought between the important
poleis
(city-states)
of Chalcis
and Eretria
over the fertile Lelantine plain of
Euboea.
Both cities seem to have suffered a decline as result of the long war, though
Chalcis was the nominal victor.

A mercantile class
rose in the first half of the
7th century, shown by the introduction of
coinage
in about 680 BC.^{[citation
needed]} This seems to have introduced tension to many
city-states. The
aristocratic
regimes which generally governed
the poleis were threatened by the new-found wealth of merchants, who in turn
desired political power. From 650 BC onwards, the aristocracies had to fight not
to be overthrown and replaced by
populist

tyrants
. The word derives from the
non-pejorative
Greek τύραννος tyrannos,
meaning ‘illegitimate ruler’, although this was applicable to both good and bad
leaders alike.^[8][9]

A growing population and shortage of land also seems to have created internal
strife between the poor and the rich in many city-states. In
Sparta,
the
Messenian Wars resulted in the conquest of
Messenia
and enserfment of the Messenians, beginning in the latter half of the 8th
century BC, an act without precedent or antecedent in ancient Greece. This
practice allowed a social revolution to occur.^[10]
The subjugated population, thenceforth known as
helots,
farmed and laboured for Sparta, whilst every Spartan male citizen became a
soldier of the
Spartan Army
in a permanently militarized
state. Even the elite were obliged to live and train as soldiers; this equality
between rich and poor served to defuse the social conflict. These reforms,
attributed to the shadowy

Lycurgus of Sparta, were probably complete by 650 BC.

Athens suffered a land and agrarian crisis in the late 7th century, again
resulting in civil strife. The
Archon
(chief magistrate)
Draco
made severe reforms to the law code in
621 BC (hence “draconian“),
but these failed to quell the conflict. Eventually the moderate reforms of
Solon
(594 BC), improving the lot of the poor but firmly entrenching the aristocracy
in power, gave Athens some stability.

The Greek world in the mid 6th century BC.

By the 6th century BC several cities had emerged as dominant in Greek
affairs: Athens, Sparta,
Corinth
, and
Thebes
. Each of them had brought the
surrounding rural areas and smaller towns under their control, and Athens and
Corinth had become major maritime and mercantile powers as well.

Rapidly increasing population in the 8th and 7th centuries had resulted in
emigration of many Greeks to form
colonies
in
Magna
Graecia (Southern
Italy and Sicily
),
Asia Minor
and further afield. The emigration
effectively ceased in the 6th century by which time the Greek world had,
culturally and linguistically, become much larger than the area of present-day
Greece. Greek colonies were not politically controlled by their founding cities,
although they often retained religious and commercial links with them.

In this period, huge economic development occurred in Greece and also her
overseas colonies which experienced a growth in commerce and manufacturing.
There was a large improvement in the living standards of the population. Some
studies estimate that the average size of the Greek household, in the period
from 800 BC to 300 BC, increased five times, which indicates a large increase in
the average income of the population.

In the second half of the 6th century, Athens fell under the tyranny of
Peisistratos
and then his sons
Hippias
and
Hipparchos
. However, in 510 BC, at the
instigation of the Athenian aristocrat

Cleisthenes, the Spartan king

Cleomenes I helped the Athenians overthrow the tyranny. Afterwards,
Sparta and Athens promptly turned on each other, at which point Cleomenes I
installed
Isagoras as a pro-Spartan archon. Eager to prevent Athens from
becoming a Spartan puppet, Cleisthenes responded by proposing to his fellow
citizens that Athens undergo a revolution: that all citizens share in political
power, regardless of status: that Athens become a “democracy“.
So enthusiastically did the Athenians take to this idea that, having overthrown
Isagoras and implemented Cleisthenes’s reforms, they were easily able to repel a
Spartan-led three-pronged invasion aimed at restoring Isagoras.^[11]
The advent of the democracy cured many of the ills of Athens and led to a
‘golden age’ for the Athenians.

Classical Greece

Early Athenian
coin, depicting the head
of Athena
on the obverse and her owl
on the reverse – 5th century BC

Attic Red-figure pottery
,
kylix
by the
Triptolemos Painter
, ca. 480 BC (Paris,
Louvre
)

Athens and Sparta would soon have to become allies in the face of the largest
external threat ancient Greece would see until the Roman conquest. After
suppressing the Ionian Revolt
, a rebellion of the Greek cities
of Ionia,

Darius I of Persia,
King
of Kings of the

Achaemenid Empire, decided to subjugate Greece. His invasion in 490
BC was ended by the Athenian victory at the

Battle of Marathon under
Miltiades the Younger
.

Xerxes I of Persia
, son and successor of Darius
I, attempted his own invasion 10 years later, but despite his larger army he
suffered heavy casualties after the famous rearguard action at
Thermopylae
and victories for the allied Greeks
at the Battles of
Salamis
and
Plataea
. The

Greco-Persian Wars continued until 449 BC, led by the Athenians and
their Delian League
, during which time the
Macedon
,
Thrace,
the
Aegean Islands and Ionia were all liberated from Persian influence.

The dominant position of the maritime Athenian ‘Empire’ threatened Sparta and
the Peloponnesian League
of mainland Greek cities.
Inevitably, this led to conflict, resulting in the

Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC). Though effectively a stalemate for
much of the war, Athens suffered a number of setbacks. The

Plague of Athens in 430 BC followed by a disastrous military campaign
known as the Sicilian Expedition
severely weakened Athens.
An estimated one-third of Athenians died, including
Pericles,
their leader.^[12]

Sparta was able to foment rebellion amongst Athens’s allies, further reducing
the Athenian ability to wage war. The decisive moment came in 405 BC when Sparta
cut off the grain supply to Athens from the
Hellespont
. Forced to attack, the crippled
Athenian fleet was decisively defeated by the Spartans under the command of
Lysander
at
Aegospotami
. In 404 BC Athens sued for peace,
and Sparta dictated a predictably stern settlement: Athens lost her city walls
(including the Long Walls
), her fleet, and all of her overseas
possessions.

4th century

Greece thus entered the 4th century under a

Spartan hegemony, but it was clear from the start that this was weak.
A demographic crisis meant Sparta was overstretched, and by 395 BC Athens,
Argos, Thebes, and Corinth felt able to challenge Spartan dominance, resulting
in the Corinthian War
(395-387 BC). Another war of
stalemates, it ended with the status quo restored, after the threat of Persian
intervention on behalf of the Spartans.

The Spartan hegemony lasted another 16 years, until, when attempting to
impose their will on the Thebans, the Spartans suffered a decisive defeat at
Leuctra
in 371 BC. The Theban general

Epaminondas then led Theban troops into the Peloponnese, whereupon
other city-states defected from the Spartan cause. The Thebans were thus able to
march into Messenia and free the population.

Deprived of land and its serfs, Sparta declined to a second-rank power. The

Theban hegemony thus established was short-lived; at the
battle of Mantinea
in 362 BC, Thebes lost her
key leader, Epaminondas, and much of her manpower, even though they were
victorious in battle. In fact such were the losses to all the great city-states
at Mantinea that none could establish dominance in the aftermath.

The weakened state of the heartland of Greece coincided with the

Rise of Macedon, led by
Philip II
. In twenty years, Philip had unified
his kingdom, expanded it north and west at the expense of
Illyrian tribes
, and then conquered
Thessaly
and Thrace.
His success stemmed from his innovative reforms to the
Macedon army
. Phillip intervened repeatedly in
the affairs of the southern city-states, culminating in his invasion of 338 BC.

Decisively defeating an allied army of Thebes and Athens at the
Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)
, he became de
facto hegemon of all of Greece, except Sparta. He compelled the majority of
the city-states to join the

League of Corinth, allying them to him, and preventing them from
warring with each other. Philip then entered into war against the Achemaenid
Empire but was assassinated by
Pausanias of Orestis
early on in the conflict.

Alexander
, son and successor of Philip,
continued the war. Alexander defeated
Darius III of Persia
and completely destroyed
the Achaemenid Empire, annexing it to Macedon and earning himself the epithet
‘the Great’. When Alexander died in 323 BC, Greek power and influence was at its
zenith. However, there had been a fundamental shift away from the fierce
independence and classical culture of the poleis—and instead towards the
developing
Hellenistic culture
.

Hellenistic Greece

The Hellenistic period
lasted from 323 BC, which
marked the end of the
Wars of Alexander the Great
, to the annexation
of Greece by the Roman Republic
in 146 BC. Although the
establishment of Roman rule did not break the continuity of Hellenistic society
and culture, which remained essentially unchanged until the advent of

Christianity, it did mark the end of Greek political independence.

During the Hellenistic period, the importance of “Greece proper” (that is,
the territory of modern Greece) within the Greek-speaking world declined
sharply. The great centers of Hellenistic culture were

Alexandria and Antioch
, capitals of
Ptolemaic Egypt
and
Seleucid Syria
respectively.

The conquests of Alexander had numerous consequences for the Greek
city-states. It greatly widened the horizons of the Greeks and led to a steady
emigration, particularly of the young and ambitious, to the new Greek empires in
the east.^[13]
Many Greeks migrated to Alexandria, Antioch and the many other new Hellenistic
cities founded in Alexander’s wake, as far away as what are now

Afghanistan and Pakistan
, where the
Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
and the
Indo-Greek Kingdom
survived until the end of
the 1st century BC.

After the death of Alexander his empire was, after quite some conflict,
divided amongst his generals, resulting in the

Ptolemaic Kingdom (based upon
Egypt),
the Seleucid Empire
(based on the
Levant,

Mesopotamia and
Persia
) and the

Antigonid dynasty based in Macedon. In the intervening period, the
poleis of Greece were able to wrest back some of their freedom, although still
nominally subject to the Macedonian Kingdom.

The city-states formed themselves into two leagues; the

Achaean League (including Thebes, Corinth and Argos) and the

Aetolian League (including Sparta and Athens). For much of the period
until the Roman conquest, these leagues were usually at war with each other,
and/or allied to different sides in the conflicts between the Diadochi (the
successor states to Alexander’s empire).

The Antigonid Kingdom became involved in a war with the Roman Republic in the
late 3rd century. Although the
First Macedonian War
was inconclusive, the
Romans, in typical fashion, continued to make war on Macedon until it was
completely absorbed into the Roman Republic (by 149 BC). In the east the
unwieldy Seleucid Empire gradually disintegrated, although a rump survived until
64 BC, whilst the Ptolemaic Kingdom continued in Egypt until 30 BC, when it too
was conquered by the Romans. The Aetolian league grew wary of Roman involvement
in Greece, and sided with the Seleucids in the
Roman-Syrian War
; when the Romans were
victorious, the league was effectively absorbed into the Republic. Although the
Achaean league outlasted both the Aetolian league and Macedon, it was also soon
defeated and absorbed by the Romans in 146 BC, bringing an end to the
independence of all of Greece.

Roman Greece

The Greek peninsula came under
Roman
rule in 146 BC,
Macedonia
becoming a

Roman province, while southern Greece came under the surveillance of
Macedonia’s praefect. However, some Greek
poleis
managed to maintain a partial
independence and avoid taxation. The
Aegean islands
were added to this territory in
133 BC.
Athens and other Greek cities revolted in 88 BC, and the peninsula
was crushed by the Roman general
Sulla
. The Roman civil wars devastated the land
even further, until
Augustus
organized the peninsula as the
province of
Achaea
in 27 BC.

Greece was a key eastern province of the
Roman
Empire, as the
Roman

culture
had long been in fact
Greco-Roman
. The
Greek language
served as a

lingua franca in the East
and in
Italy,
and many Greek intellectuals such as
Galen
would perform most of their work in Rome
.