Seleukos I, Nikator 312BC Ancient Rare Greek Coin Medusa Protection Bull i47601

Item: i47601

Authentic Ancient

Greek Coin of
Seleucid Kingdom



Seleukos I, Nikator
– King: 312-280 B.C.
Bronze 22mm (6.80 grams) Struck circa 312-280 B.C.
Reference: Sear 6852 var.; HGC 9, 92a
Winged head of
Medusa

right, serpents in hair.
ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ / ΣEΛΕYKOY above
and beneath humped
bull
butting right.

Destined to be the
longest-surviving of the ‘Successors’ of Alexander, Seleukos had a difficult
time establishing his power. Alloted the satrapy of Babylon in 321 B.C. he was
ousted from this position five years later, by Antigonos the One-eyed, and fled
to his friend Ptolemy in Egypt. In 312 B.C. he regained Babylon and it is from
this even that the Seleukid Era is dated. Seleukos gradually consolidated his
power and in 305 B.C. took the title of King. From 305-3 he campaigned in the
east, extending his rule as far as India. With his defeat of Lysimachos in 281
he became master of the whole of Alexander’s empire, except Egypt; but the
following year he was assassinated by Ptolemy Keraunos, a renegade son of his
late friend, the King of Egypt.

The territorial extent of this might realm varied greatly from period to
period. At its zenith, under Seleukos I and Antiochos I, it compromised almost
the whole of Alexander’s conquests, except Egypt. In the mid-3rd century the
easternmost provinces were lost when both Baktria and Parthia achieved
independence. Antiochos III, the Great, attempted to regain the lost
territories, but he was only partially successful and in 190 B.C. he was
defeated by the Romans at the battle of Magnesia. This destroyed the Seleukid
power in Asia Minor, their former possessions passed to Rome’s ally, the Kingdom
of Pergamon. The Seleukid Kingdom, now restricted to Syria and the surrounding
area, maintained a precarious existence until 64 B.C. when it finally succumbed
to Pompey the Great.

You are bidding on the exact item pictured,

Authenticity.

The Aegis  as stated in the
Iliad
, is the
shield
or
buckler
or breastplate of
Athena
and

Zeus, famously bearing
Medusa
‘s head, which, according to
Homer
was fashioned by
Hephaestus
“… and among them went bright-eyed
Athene, holding the precious aegis which is ageless and immortal: a hundred
tassels of pure gold hang fluttering from it, tight-woven each of them, and each
the worth of a hundred oxen.”

The aegis on the Lemnian Athena of
Phidias
, represented by a cast at
the
Pushkin Museum

The modern concept of doing something “under someone’s aegis” means
doing something under the protection of a powerful, knowledgeable, or benevolent
source. The word aegis is identified with protection by a strong force
with its roots in
Greek mythology
and adopted by the Romans;
there are parallels in
Norse mythology
and in
Egyptian mythology
as well, where the Greek
word aegis is applied by extension.

In Greek mythology

Virgil imagines the
Cyclopes
in Hephaestus’ forge, who “busily
burnished the aegis Athene wears in her angry moods—a fearsome thing with a
surface of gold like scaly snake-skin, and he linked serpents and the
Gorgon
herself upon the goddess’s breast—a
severed head rolling its eyes.” furnished with golden tassels and bearing the
Gorgoneion
(Medusa‘s
head) in the central boss. Some of the
Attic
vase-painters retained an archaic
tradition that the tassels had originally been
serpents
in their representations of the aegis.
When the Olympian deities overtook the older deities of Greece and she was born
of
Metis
(inside

Zeus who had swallowed the goddess) and “re-born” through the head of
Zeus fully clothed, Athena already wore her typical garments.

When the Olympian shakes the aegis,
Mount Ida
is wrapped in clouds, the thunder
rolls and men are struck down with fear. “Aegis-bearing Zeus”, as he is in the
Iliad, sometimes lends the fearsome goatskin to
Athena
. In the Iliad when Zeus sends
Apollo
to revive the wounded
Hector of Troy
, Apollo, holding the aegis,
charges the Achaeans, pushing them back to their ships drawn up on the shore.
According to
Edith Hamilton
‘s Mythology: Timeless Tales
of Gods and Heroes,^[3]
the Aegis is the
breastplate
of

Zeus, and was “awful to behold.”

Locating the Aegis

 

Athena’s aegis, bearing the Gorgon, here resembles closely the skin
of the huge serpent who guards the golden fleece (regurgitating
Jason); cup by Douris, Classical Greece, early fifth century BC—Vatican
Museum

Greeks of the Classical age
always detected
that there was something alien and uncanny about the Aegis. It was supposed by
Euripides
(Ion, 995) that the
Gorgon
was the original possessor of this
goatskin, yet the usual understanding is that the Gorgoneion was added
to the Aegis, a
votive gift
from a grateful
Perseus
.

There also is the origin myth that represents the ægis as a fire-breathing
chthonic
monster similar to the
Chimera
, which was slain and flayed by
Athena
, who afterward wore its skin as a
cuirass
(Diodorus
Siculus iii. 70), or as a
chlamys
. The Douris cup shows that the Aegis
was represented exactly as the skin of the guardian serpent, with its scales
clearly delineated. Often the Aegis is described as the bag in which Athene
carried her shield and the serpent who was her son.

John Tzetzes
says that it was the skin of the
monstrous giant
Pallas
whom Athena overcame and whose name she
attached to her own (name).

In a late rendering by
Hyginus
(Poetical Astronomy ii. 13),
Zeus is said to have used the skin of the

goat deity
Amalthea
(aigis “goat-skin”) which
suckled him in Crete
, as a shield when he went forth to do
battle against the
Titans
. She is thought to bear the name of the
deity who was derived from Libya, where known as
Neith
, the same source sometimes identified as
the parallel for Athene.

In accordance with this double meaning, the Aegis appears in works of art
sometimes as an animal’s skin thrown over the shoulders and arms, and sometimes
as a cuirass, with a border of snakes corresponding to the tassels of Homer,
usually with the Gorgon head, the gorgoneion, in the centre.

 

First century BC
mosaic
of Alexander the Great
wearing the aegis on a
mosaic from Pompeii
(Naples
National Archaeological Museum)

It often is represented on the statues of
Roman
emperors, heroes, and warriors as well as
on cameos and vases. A vestige of that appears in a portrait of
Alexander the Great
in a fresco from Pompeii
dated to the first century BC, which shows the image of the head of a woman on
his armor that resembles the Gorgon.

Origins

Herodotus
(Histories iv.189) thought he
had identified the source of the ægis in
Libya
, which was always a distant territory of
ancient magic for the Greeks:

Athene’s garments and ægis were borrowed by the Greeks from the
Libyan women, who are dressed in exactly the same way, except that their
leather garments are fringed with thongs, not serpents.

Robert Graves
in The Greek Myths (1955;
1960) asserts that the ægis in its Libyan sense had been a shamanic pouch
containing various ritual objects, bearing the device of a monstrous
serpent-haired visage with tusk-like teeth and a protruding tongue which was
meant to frighten away the uninitiated. In this context, Graves identifies the
aegis as clearly belonging first to Athena.

Augustus
is shown with an aegis
thrown over his shoulder as a divine attribute in the
Blacas Cameo
; the hole for the head
appears at the point of his shoulder.

Another version^{[citation
needed]} describes it to have been really the goat’s
skin used as a belt to support the shield. When so used it would generally be
fastened on the right shoulder, and would partially envelop the chest as it
passed obliquely round in front and behind to be attached to the shield under
the left arm. Hence, by
metonymy
, it would be employed to denote at
times the shield which it supported, and at other times a
cuirass
, or
chlamys
, the purpose of which it in part
served. In accordance with this double meaning, the ægis appears in works of art
sometimes as an animal’s skin thrown over the shoulders and arms, and sometimes
as a cuirass, with a border of snakes corresponding to the tassels of Homer,
usually with the Gorgon’s head, the gorgoneion, in the centre. It is
often represented on the statues of
Roman
emperors, heroes, and warriors, and on
cameos and vases.

A current modern interpretation is that the
Hittite
sacral hieratic hunting bag (kursas),
a rough and shaggy goatskin that has been firmly established in literary texts
and iconography by H.G. Güterbock, is the most likely source of the aegis.

Etymology

Greek
Αιγίς has three meanings:

1. “violent windstorm”, from the verb ‘αïσσω (stem
   ‘αïγ-) = “I rush or move violently”. Akin to “καταιγίς” hurricane.
2. The shield of a deity as described above
3. “goatskin coat”, from treating the word as meaning “something
   grammatically feminine pertaining to
   goat
   ” (Greek αἰξ (stem
   αἰγ-) = “goat”, + suffix -ίς (stem ίδ-))

The original meaning may have been #1, and Ζευς ‘Αιγιοχος = “Zeus who holds
the aegis” may have originally meant “Sky/Heaven, who holds the storm”. The
transition to the meaning “shield” may have come by
folk-etymology
among a people familiar with
draping an animal skin over the left arm as a shield.

In Egyptian
and Nubian tradition

Aegis of Neith
from the
Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt
(Museum
of Fine Arts of Lyon)

The aegis also appears in Ancient
Egyptian mythology
. The goddess
Bast
sometimes was depicted holding a
ceremonial sistrum
in one hand and an aegis in the other –
the aegis usually resembling a collar or
gorget
embellished with a

lioness head.
Plato
drew a parallel between Athene and the
ancient Libyan and Egyptian goddess
Neith
, a
war deity
who also was depicted carrying a
shield.

Aegis on an image of
Isis
from 4th-century BC
Nubia
(British
Museum)

Ancient Nubia
shared many aspects of its mythology with
ancient Egypt and there is debate about the original source of some religious
concepts that the two cultures share and, whether the assimilation was from
Nubia to Egypt, the reverse, or through continuing exchanges. At one time the
Kush
of Nubia ruled ancient Egypt.

An image of Isis wearing an aegis was discovered in present-day
Sudan
, the territory of Nubia when the artifact
was made in the 4th century BC. It is likely to be an artifact of the
flourishing culture of
Meroë
, successors to the culture of Kush, as
indicated by the use of
Egyptian hieroglyphs
and
cartouches
.

In Norse mythology

In
Norse mythology
, the dragon
Fafnir
(best known in the form of a dragon
slain by Sigurðr) bears on his forehead the Ægis-helm (ON ægishjálmr), or Ægir’s
helmet, or more specifically the “Helm of Terror”. However, some versions would
say that Alberich was the one holding a helm, named as the Tarnkappe,
which has the power to make the user invisible. It may be an actual helmet or a
magical sign with a rather poetic name. Ægir is an Old Norse word meaning
“terror” and the name of a destructive giant associated with the sea; ægis
is the
genitive
(possessive) form of ægir and
has no direct relation to Greek aigis.

In
Greek mythology
Medusa (Greek:
Μέδουσα (Médousa), “guardian, protectress”)
was a monster
, a
Gorgon
, generally described as having the face
of a hideous human female with living venomous snakes in place of hair. Gazing
directly upon her would turn onlookers to stone. Most sources describe her as
the daughter of Phorcys
and

Ceto, though the author
Hyginus
(Fabulae,
151) interposes a generation and gives Medusa another chthonic pair as parents.

Medusa was beheaded by the hero
Perseus
, who thereafter used her head as a
weapon until he gave it to the goddess
Athena
to place on her
shield
. In
classical antiquity
the image of the head of
Medusa appeared in the
evil-averting device
known as the
Gorgoneion
.

Medusa in
classical mythology

Perseus with the Head of Medusa
,
by
Benvenuto Cellini
, installed 1554

The three Gorgon
sisters—Medusa,
Stheno
, and
Euryale
—were all children of the ancient marine
deities Phorcys
(or Phorkys) and his sister

Ceto (or Keto),
chthonic
monsters from an
archaic
world. Their genealogy is shared with
other sisters, the Graeae
, as in
Aeschylus
‘s
Prometheus Bound
, which places both
trinities of sisters far off “on Kisthene’s dreadful plain”:

Near them their sisters three, the Gorgons, winged
With snakes for hair— hated of mortal man—

While ancient Greek vase-painters and relief carvers imagined Medusa and her
sisters as beings born of monstrous form, sculptors and vase-painters of the
fifth century began to envisage her as being beautiful as well as terrifying. In
an ode written in 490 BC
Pindar
already speaks of “fair-cheeked Medusa”.

In a late version of the Medusa myth, related by the Roman poet

Ovid (Metamorphoses 4.770), Medusa was originally a
ravishingly beautiful maiden, “the jealous aspiration of many suitors,”
priestess in Athena’s temple, but when she was caught being raped by the “Lord
of the Sea” Poseidon
in
Athena
‘s temple, the enraged Athena transformed
Medusa’s beautiful hair to serpents and made her face so terrible to behold that
the mere sight of it would turn onlookers to stone. In Ovid’s telling, Perseus
describes Medusa’s punishment by Minerva (Athena) as just and well earned.

Death

In most versions of the story, she was
beheaded
by the
hero

Perseus
, who was sent to fetch her head by King
Polydectes
of Seriphus. In his conquest, he
received a mirrored shield from
Athena
, gold, winged sandals from
Hermes
, a sword from
Hephaestus
and Hades’ helm of invisibility.
Medusa was the only one of the three Gorgons who was mortal, so Perseus was able
to slay her while looking at the reflection from the mirrored shield he received
from Athena. During that time, Medusa was pregnant by
Poseidon
. When Perseus beheaded her,
Pegasus
, a winged horse, and
Chrysaor
, a golden sword-wielding giant, sprang
from her body.

Head of Medusa, gate of the
Royal Palace of Turin

Jane Ellen Harrison
argues that “her potency
only begins when her head is severed, and that potency resides in the head; she
is in a word a mask with a body later appended… the basis of the
Gorgoneion
is a
cultus object
, a ritual mask misunderstood.”

In the Odyssey
xi,
Homer
does not specifically mention the
Gorgon
Medusa:

Lest for my daring
Persephone
the dread,
From Hades should send up an awful monster’s grisly head.

Harrison’s translation states “the Gorgon was made out of the terror, not the
terror out of the Gorgon.”According to

Ovid, in northwest Africa, Perseus flew past the
Titan

Atlas
, who stood holding the sky aloft, and
transformed him into stone when he tried to attack him. In a similar manner, the
corals
of the
Red Sea
were said to have been formed of
Medusa’s blood spilled onto
seaweed
when Perseus laid down the petrifying
head beside the shore during his short stay in
Ethiopia
where he saved and wed his future
wife, the lovely princess
Andromeda
. Furthermore the poisonous vipers of
the Sahara
, in the
Argonautica
4.1515, Ovid’s
Metamorphoses
4.770 and Lucan’s
Pharsalia
9.820, were said to have grown
from spilt drops of her blood. The blood of Medusa also spawned the
Amphisbaena
(a horned dragon-like creature with
a snake-headed tail).

Perseus then flew to Seriphos, where his mother was about to be forced into
marriage with the king. King Polydectes was turned into stone by the gaze of
Medusa’s head. Then Perseus gave the Gorgon’s head to Athena, who placed it on
her shield, the Aegis
.

Some classical references refer to three Gorgons; Harrison considered that
the tripling of Medusa into a trio of sisters was a secondary feature in the
myth:

The triple form is not primitive, it is merely an instance of a general
tendency… which makes of each woman goddess a trinity, which has given
us the Horae
, the
Charites
, the
Semnai
, and a host of other triple
groups. It is immediately obvious that the Gorgons are not really three
but one + two. The two unslain sisters are mere appendages due to
custom; the real Gorgon is Medusa.

Modern interpretations

Psychoanalysis

An
archaic
Medusa wearing the belt of
the intertwined snakes, a fertility symbol, as depicted on the west
pediment
of the
Artemis Temple in Corfu
, exhibited
at the
Archaeological Museum of Corfu

In 1940,
Sigmund Freud
‘s Das Medusenhaupt (Medusa’s
Head) was published posthumously. This article laid the framework
for his significant contribution to a body of criticism surrounding the monster.
Medusa is presented as “the supreme
talisman
who provides the image of
castration
— associated in the child’s mind
with the discovery of maternal sexuality — and its denial.”
Psychoanalysis
continue
archetypal literary criticism
to the present
day:
Beth Seelig
analyzes Medusa’s punishment from
the aspect of the crime of having been raped rather than having willingly
consented in Athena’s temple as an outcome of the goddess’ unresolved conflicts
with her own father, Zeus
.

Feminism

In the 20th century,
feminists
reassessed Medusa’s appearances in
literature and in modern culture, including the use of Medusa as a

logo by fashion company
Versace
. The name “Medusa” itself is often used
in ways not directly connected to the mythological figure but to suggest the
gorgon’s abilities or to
connote
malevolence; despite her origins as a
beauty, the name in common usage “came to mean monster.” The book Female
Rage: Unlocking Its Secrets, Claiming Its Power by Mary Valentis and Anne
Devane notes that “When we asked women what female rage looks like to them, it
was always Medusa, the snaky-haired monster of myth, who came to mind … In one
interview after another we were told that Medusa is ‘the most horrific woman in
the world’ … [though] none of the women we interviewed could remember the
details of the myth.”

Medusa mosaic (Roman period),
National Archaeological Museum, Athens

Medusa’s visage has since been adopted by many women as a symbol of female
rage; one of the first publications to express this idea was a 1978 issue of
Women: A Journal of Liberation. The cover featured the image of a Gorgon,
which the editors explained “can be a map to guide us through our terrors,
through the depths of our anger into the sources of our power as women.”^[15]
In a 1986 article for Women of Power magazine called “Ancient Gorgons: A
Face for Contemporary Women’s Rage,” Emily Erwin Culpepper wrote that “The
Amazon Gorgon face is female fury personified. The Gorgon/Medusa image has been
rapidly adopted by large numbers of feminists who recognize her as one face of
our own rage.”

Seleucus I Nicator (ca. 358 BC – 281 BC) was one of the
Diadochi
, having previously served as an
infantry general under
Alexander the Great
, he eventually assumed the
title of basileus
and established the
Seleucid Empire
over much of Alexander’s
near eastern
territories.

After the death of Alexander, Seleucus initially supported
Perdiccas
, the regent of Alexander’s empire,
and was appointed
Commander of the Companions
and
chiliarch
at the
Partition of Babylon
in 323 BC. However, at the
outbreak of the
Wars of the Diadochi
, Perdiccas’ military
failures against
Ptolemy
in
Egypt
led to the mutiny of his troops in
Pelusium
. Perdiccas was betrayed and
assassinated in a conspiracy by Seleucus,
Peithon
and
Antigenes
in Pelusium sometime in either 321 or
320 BC.

At the
Partition of Triparadisus
, Seleucus was
appointed Satrap of Babylon
under the new regent
Antipater
. But almost immedialty, the wars
between the Diadochi resumed and
Antigonus
^][D
forced Seleucus to flee
Babylon
. Seleucus was only able to return to
Babylon in 312 BC with the support of Ptolemy. From 312 BC, Seleucus ruthlessly
expanded his dominions and eventually conquered the
Persian
and
Median
lands. Seleucus did not only rule
Babylonia
, but the entire enormous eastern part
of Alexander’s empire:

“Always lying in wait for the neighboring nations, strong in arms and
persuasive in council, he [Seleucus] acquired Mesopotamia, Armenia,
‘Seleucid’ Cappadocia, Persis, Parthia, Bactria, Arabia, Tapouria, Sogdia,
Arachosia, Hyrcania, and other adjacent peoples that had been subdued by
Alexander, as far as the river Indus, so that the boundaries of his empire
were the most extensive in Asia after that of Alexander. The whole region
from Phrygia to the Indus was subject to Seleucus.”

— Appian
, The Syrian Wars

Seleucus’ wars took him as far as
India
, where,
after two years of war
, he made peace with the
Indian Emperor
Chandragupta Maurya
, and exchanged his eastern
satrapies in the
Indus River Valley
for a considerable force of
500
war elephants
, which would play a decisive role
against Antigonus at the
Battle of Ipsus
in 301 BC and against
Lysimachus
^][E
at the
Battle of Corupedium
in 281 BC.

“The Indians occupy [in part] some of the countries situated along the
Indus, which formerly belonged to the Persians: Alexander deprived the
Ariani of them, and established there settlements of his own. But Seleucus
Nicator gave them to
Sandrocottus
in consequence of a marriage
contract, and received in return five hundred elephants.”

—Strabo, Geographica

Following Seleucus’ victories against Antigonus and Lysimachus, the Seleucid
dynasty was virtually unopposed in

Asia and in
Anatolia
. However, Seleucus also hoped to take
control of Lysimachus’ European territories, primarily Thrace and Macedon
itself. But upon arriving in Thrace in 281 BC, Seleucus was assassinated by
Ptolemy Ceraunus
, whom had taken refuge at the
Seleucid court with his sister
Lysandra
. The effect of the assassination of
Seleucus destroyed Seleucid prospects in Thrace and Macedon, and paved the way
for Ptolemy Ceraunus to absorb much of Lysimachus’ former power in Macedon.
Seleucus was succeeded by his son
Antiochus I
as ruler of the empire.

Seleucus founded a number of new cities during his reign, including
Antioch
and in particular
Seleucia on the Tigris
, the new capital of the
Seleucid Empire, something that eventually depopulated Babylon.

Youth and family

Seleucus was the son of
Antiochus
. Historian
Junianus Justinus
claims he was one of
Philip II of Macedon
‘s generals. Antiochus is
not, however, mentioned in any other sources and nothing is known of his
supposed career under Philip. It is possible that Antiochus was a member of an
upper Macedonian noble family. Seleucus’ mother was supposedly called
Laodice
, but nothing else is known of her.
Later, Seleucus named a number of cities after his parents.

As a teenager, Seleucus was chosen to serve as the king’s
page
(paides). It was customary for all
male offspring of noble families to first serve in this position and later as
officers in the king’s army.

Seleucus’ year of birth is unclear. Justin claims he was 77 years old during
the
battle of Corupedium
, which would place his
year of birth at 358 BC.
Appianus
tells us Seleucus was 73 years old
during the battle, which means 354 BC would be the year of birth.
Eusebius of Caesarea
, however, mentions the age
of 75, and thus the year 356 BC, making Seleucus the same age as
Alexander the Great
. This is most likely
propaganda on Seleucus’ part to make him seem comparable to Alexander.

Seleucus was born in
Europos
, located in the northern part of
Macedonia
. Just a year before his birth (if the
year 358 BC is accepted as the most likely date), the
Paeonians
invaded the region. Philip defeated
the invaders and only a few years later utterly subdued them under Macedonian
rule.

A number of legends, similar to those told of Alexander the Great, were told
of Seleucus. It was said Antiochus told his son before he left to battle the
Persians with Alexander that his real father was actually the god
Apollo
. The god had left a ring with a picture
of an anchor
as a gift to Laodice. Seleucus had a
birthmark shaped like an anchor. It was told that Seleucus’ sons and grandsons
also had similar birthmarks. The story is similar to the one told about
Alexander. Most likely the story is merely propaganda by Seleucus, who
presumably invented the story to present himself as the natural successor of
Alexander.

John Malalas
tells us Seleucus had a sister
called
Didymeia
, who had sons called Nicanor and
Nicomedes. It is most likely the sons are fictitious. Didymeia might refer to
the oracle of Apollo in
Didyma
near
Miletus
. It has also been suggested that
Ptolemy (son of Seleucus)
was actually the
uncle of Seleucus.

Early
career under Alexander the Great

Seleucus led the Royal Hypaspistai during Alexander’s Persian
campaign.

In spring 334 BC, as a young man of about twenty-three, Seleucus accompanied
Alexander into Asia. By the time of the Indian campaigns beginning in late in
327 BC, he had risen to the command of the élite infantry corps in the
Macedonian army, the “Shield-bearers” (Hypaspistai), later known as the “Silvershields“.
It is said that when Alexander crossed the Hydaspes river on a boat, he was
accompanied by
Perdiccas
,
Ptolemy I Soter
,
Lysimachus
and also Seleucus. During the
subsequent
Battle of the Hydaspes
, Seleucus led his troops
against the elephants of
King Porus
. It is likely that Seleucus had no
role in the actual planning of the battle. He is also not mentioned as holding
any major independent position during the battle, unlike, for example,
Craterus
,
Hephaistion
,
Peithon
and
Leonnatus
– each of whom had sizable
detachments under his control. Seleucus’ Royal Hypaspistai were
constantly under Alexander’s eye and at his disposal. They later participated in
the Indus valley campaign, in the battles fought against the
Malli
and in the crossing of the
Gedrosian
desert.

Seleucus also took his future wife, the Persian princess
Apama
(daughter of
Spitamenes
), with him into India as his
mistress, where she gave birth to his eldest son and successor
Antiochus I Soter
(325 BC). At the great
marriage ceremony at Susa
in the spring of 324 BC, Seleucus formally
married Apama
, and she later bore him at least two
legitimate daughters,
Laodice
, Apama and a son
Achaeus
. At the same event, Alexander married
the daughter of
Darius III
while several other Macedonians
married Persian women. After Alexander’s death, when the other senior Macedonian
officers unloaded their “Susa wives” en masse, Seleucus was one of the
very few who kept his, and Apama remained his consort and later Queen for the
rest of her life.

Seleucus is mentioned three times in ancient sources before the death of
Alexander. He participated in a sailing trip near
Babylon
, took part in the dinner party of
Medeios the Thessalian with Alexander and visited the temple of
Sarapis
. In the first of these episodes,
Alexander’s diadem
was blown off his head and landed on
some reeds near the tombs of Assyrian kings. Seleucus swam to fetch the diadem
back, placing it on his own head while returning to the boat to keep it dry. The
validity of the story is dubious. The story of the dinner party of Medeios may
be true, but the plot to poison the King is unlikely.^{[clarification
needed insufficient details and context]} In the
final story, Seleucus reportedly slept in the temple of
Sarapis
in the hope that Alexander’s health
might improve. The validity of this story is also questionable, as Sarapis had
not been invented at the time.

Senior officer
under Perdiccas

Ptolemy, an officer under Alexander the Great, was nominated as the
satrap of Egypt. Ptolemy made Egypt independent and proclaimed
himself King and
Pharaoh
.

Alexander the Great died without a successor in Babylon on June 10, 323 BC.
His general Perdiccas
became the regent of all of
Alexander’s empire, while Alexander’s physically and mentally disabled
half-brother
Arrhidaeus
was chosen as the next king under
the name
Philip III of Macedon
. Alexander’s unborn child
(Alexander
IV) was also named his father’s successor. In the “Partition
of Babylon” however, Perdiccas effectively divided the enormous
Macedonian dominion among Alexander’s generals. Seleucus was chosen to command
the
Companion cavalry
(hetaroi) and
appointed first or court
chiliarch
, which made him the senior officer in
the Royal Army after the regent and commander-in-chief Perdiccas. Several other
powerful men supported Perdiccas, including
Ptolemy
,
Lysimachus
,
Peithon
and
Eumenes
. Perdiccas’ power depended on his
ability to hold Alexander’s enormous empire together, and on whether he could
force the satraps
to obey him.

War soon broke out between Perdiccas and the other
Diadochi
. To cement his position, Perdiccas
tried to marry Alexander’s sister
Cleopatra
. The
First War of the Diadochi
began when Perdiccas
sent Alexander’s corpse to Macedonia for burial. Ptolemy however captured the
body and took it to
Alexandria
. Perdiccas and his troops followed
him to Egypt, whereupon Ptolemy conspired with the satrap of Media,
Peithon
, and the commander of the
Argyraspides
,
Antigenes
, both serving as officers under
Perdiccas, and assassinated him.
Cornelius Nepos
mentions that Seleucus also
took part in this conspiracy, but this is not certain.

Satrap of Babylon

The most powerful man in the empire after the death of Perdiccas was
Antipater
. Perdiccas’ opponents gathered in
Triparadisos, where the empire of Alexander was partitioned again (the
Treaty of Triparadisus
321 BC).

At Triparadisos the soldiers had become mutinous and were planning to murder
their master Antipater. Seleucus and
Antigonus
, however, managed to prevent this.
For betraying Perdiccas, Seleucus was awarded the rich province of Babylon. This
decision may have been Antigonus’ idea. Seleucus’ Babylon was surrounded by
Peucestas
, the satrap of
Persis
;
Antigenes
, the new satrap of
Susiana
and Peithon of Media. Babylon was one
of the wealthiest provinces of the empire, but its military power was
insignificant. It is possible that Antipater divided the eastern provinces so
that no single satrap could rise above the others in power.

After the death of Alexander,
Archon of Pella
was chosen satrap of Babylon.
Perdiccas, however, had had plans to supersede Archon and nominate
Docimus
as his successor. During his invasion
of Egypt, Perdiccas sent Docimus along with his detachments to Babylon. Archon
waged war against him, but fell in battle. Thus, Docimus was not intending to
give Babylon to Seleucus without a fight. It is not certain how Seleucus took
Babylon from Docimus, but according to one Babylonian chronicle an important
building was destroyed in the city during the summer or winter of 320 BC. Other
Babylonian sources state that Seleucus arrived in Babylon in October or November
320 BC. Despite the presumed battle, Docimus was able to escape.

Meanwhile, the empire was once again in turmoil. Peithon, the satrap of
Media, assassinated Philip, the satrap of
Parthia
, and replaced him with his brother
Eudemus
as the new satrap. In the west
Antigonus
and
Eumenes
waged war against each other. Just like
Peithon and Seleucus, Eumenes was one of the former supporters of Perdiccas.
Seleucus’ biggest problem was, however, Babylon itself. The locals had rebelled
against Archon and supported Docimus. The Babylonian priesthood had great
influence over the region. Babylon also had a sizable population of Macedonian
and Greek veterans of Alexander’s army. Seleucus managed to win over the priests
with monetary gifts and bribes.

Second War of the
Diadochi

After the death of Antipater in 319 BC, the satrap of Media began to expand
his power. Peithon assembled a large army of perhaps over 20,000 soldiers. Under
the leadership of Peucestas the other satraps of the region brought together an
opposing army of their own. Peithon was finally defeated in a battle waged in
Parthia. He escaped to Media, but his opponents did not follow him and rather
returned to Susiana. Meanwhile Eumenes and his army had arrived at
Cilicia
, but had to retreat when Antigonus
reached the city. The situation was difficult for Seleucus. Eumenes and his army
were north of Babylon; Antigonus was following him with an even larger army;
Peithon was in Media and his opponents in Susiana. Antigenes, satrap of Susiana
and commander of the Argyraspides, was allied with Eumenes. Antigenes was in
Cilicia when the war between him and Peithon began.

Peithon arrived at Babylon in the autumn or winter of 317 BC. Peithon had
lost a large number of troops, but Seleucus had even fewer soldiers. Eumenes
decided to march to Susa in the spring of 316 BC. The satraps in Susa had
apparently accepted Eumenes’ claims of his fighting on behalf of the lawful
ruling family against the usurper Antigonus. Eumenes marched his army 300
stadions
away from Babylon and tried to cross
the Tigris
. Seleucus had to act. He sent two
triremes
and some smaller ships to stop the
crossing. He also tried to get the former hypasiti of the Argyraspides to
join him, but this did not happen. Seleucus also sent messages to Antigonus.
Because of his lack of troops, Seleucus apparently had no plans to actually stop
Eumenes. He opened the flood barriers of the river, but the resulting flood did
not stop Eumenes.

In the spring of 316 BC, Seleucus and Peithon joined Antigonus, who was
following Eumenes to Susa. From Susa Antigonus went to Media, from where he
could threaten the eastern provinces. He left Seleucus with a small number of
troops to prevent Eumenes from reaching the Mediterranean.
Sibyrtius
, satrap of
Arachosia
, saw the situation as hopeless and
returned to his own province. The armies of Eumenes and his allies were at
breaking point. Antigonus and Eumenes had two encounters during 316 BC, in the
battles of
Paraitacene
and
Gabiene
. Eumenes was defeated and executed. The
events of the Second War of the Diadochi revealed Seleucus’ ability to wait for
the right moment. Blazing into battle was not his style.

Escape to Egypt

Coin of Seleucus.

Antigonus spent the winter of 316 BC in Media, whose ruler was once again
Peithon. Peithon’s lust for power had grown, and he tried to get a portion of
Antigonus troops to revolt to his side. Antigonus, however, discovered the plot
and executed Peithon. He then superseded Peucestas as satrap of Persia. In the
summer of 315 BC Antigonus arrived in Babylon and was warmly welcomed by
Seleucus. The relationship between the two soon turned cold, however. Seleucus
punished one of Antigonus’ officers without asking permission from Antigonus.
Antigonus became angry and demanded that Seleucus give him the income from the
province, which Seleucus refused to do. He was, however, afraid of Antigonus and
fled to Egypt with 50 horsemen. It is told that
Chaldean
astrologers prophesied to Antigonus
that Seleucus would become master of Asia and would kill Antigonus. After
hearing this, Antigonus sent soldiers after Seleucus, who had however first
escaped to
Mesopotamia
and then to
Syria
. Antigonus executed Blitor, the new
satrap of Mesopotamia, for helping Seleucus. Modern scholars are skeptical of
the prophecy story. It seems certain, however, that the Babylon priesthood was
against Seleucus.

During Seleucus’ escape to Egypt, Macedonia was undergoing great turmoil.
Alexander the Great’s mother
Olympias
had been invited back to Macedon by
Polyperchon
in order to drive Cassander out.
She held great respect among the Macedonian army but lost some of this when she
had Philip III and his wife
Eurydice
killed as well as many nobles whom she
took revenge upon for supporting Antipater during his long reign.
Cassander
reclaimed Macedon the following year
at Pydna and then had her killed.
Alexander IV
, still a young child, and his
mother Roxane were held guarded at Amphipolis and died under mysterious
circumstances in 310BC, probably murdered at the instigation of
Cassander
to allow the diadochs to assume the
title of kingship.

Admiral under Ptolemy

After arriving in Egypt, Seleucus sent his friends to Greece to inform
Cassander and Lysimachus, the ruler of
Thracia
, about Antigonus. Antigonus was now the
most powerful of the Diadochi, and the others would soon ally against
him. The allies sent a proposition to Antigonus in which they demanded that
Seleucus be allowed to return to Babylon. Antigonus refused and went to Syria,
where he planned to attack Ptolemy in the spring of 314 BC.^[21]
Seleucus was an admiral under Ptolemy. At the same time he started the siege of
Tyros
,^[22]
Antigonus allied with
Rhodes
. The island had a strategic location and
its navy was capable of preventing the allies from combining their forces.
Because of the threat of Rhodes, Ptolemy gave Seleucus a hundred ships and sent
him to the Aegean Sea. The fleet was too small to defeat Rhodes, but it was big
enough to force Asander
, the satrap of
Caria
, to ally with Ptolemy. To demonstrate his
power, Seleucus also invaded the city of
Erythrai
. Ptolemy, nephew of Antigonus,
attacked Asander. Seleucus returned to Cyprus, where Ptolemy I had sent his
brother
Menelaos
along with 10,000 mercenaries and 100
ships. Seleucus and Menelaos began to besiege Kition. Antigonus sent most of his
fleet to the Aegean Sea and his army to Asia Minor. Ptolemy now had an
opportunity to invade Syria, where he defeated
Demetrius
, the son Antigonus, in the
battle of Gaza
in 312 BC. It is probable that
Seleucus took part in the battle.
Peithon, son of Agenor
, whom Antigonus had
nominated as the new satrap of Babylon, fell in the battle. The death of Peithon
gave Seleucus an opportunity to return to Babylon.

Seleucus had prepared his return to Babylon well. After the battle of Gaza
Demetrius retreated to
Tripoli
while Ptolemy advanced all the way to
Sidon
. Ptolemy gave Seleucus 800 infantry and
200 cavalry. He also had his friends accompanying him, perhaps the same 50 who
escaped with him from Babylon. On the way to Babylon Seleucus recruited more
soldiers from the colonies along the route. He finally had about 3,000 soldiers.
In Babylon, Pethon’s commander, Diphilus, barricaded himself in the city’s
fortress. Seleucus conquered Babylon with great speed and the fortress was also
quickly captured. Seleucus’ friends who had stayed in Babylon were released from
captivity. His return to Babylon was afterwards officially regarded as the
beginning of the
Seleucid Empire
and that year as the first of
the Seleucid era
.

Seleucus the Victor

Conquest of
the eastern provinces

The kingdoms of
Antigonus
,
Seleucus I
,
Ptolemy I
,
Cassander
and
Lysimachus
.

Soon after Seleucus’ return, the supporters of Antigonus tried to get Babylon
back.
Nicanor
was the new satrap of Media and the
strategos of the eastern provinces. His army had about 17,000 soldiers.
Evagoras, the satrap of
Aria
, was allied with him. It was obvious that
Seleucus’ small force could not defeat the two in battle. Seleucus hid his
armies in the marshes that surrounded the area where Nicanor was planning to
cross the Tigris and made a surprise attack during the night. Evagoras fell in
the beginning of the battle and Nicanor was cut off from his forces. The news
about the death of Evagoras spread among the soldiers, who started to surrender
en masse. Almost all of them agreed to fight under Seleucus. Nicanor
managed to escape with only a few men.

Even though Seleucus now had about 20,000 soldiers, they were not enough to
withstand the forces of Antigonus. He also did not know when Antigonus would
begin his counterattack. On the other hand, he knew that at least two eastern
provinces did not have a satrap. A great majority of his own troops were from
these provinces. Some of Evagoras’ troops were Persian. Perhaps a portion of the
troops were Eumenes’ soldiers, who had a reason to hate Antigonus. Seleucus
decided to take advantage of this situation.

Seleucus spread different stories among the provinces and the soldiers.
According to one of them, he had in a dream seen Alexander standing beside him.
Eumenes had tried to use a similar propaganda trick. Antigonus, who had been in
Asia Minor while Seleucus had been in the east with Alexander, could not use
Alexander in his own propaganda. Seleucus, being Macedonian, had the ability to
gain the trust of the Macedonians among his troops, which was not the case with
Eumenes.

After becoming once again satrap of Babylon, Seleucus became much more
aggressive in his politics. In a short time he conquered Media and Susiana.
Diodorus Siculus
reports that Seleucus also
conquered other nearby areas, which might refer to
Persis
,

Aria or
Parthia
. Seleucus did not reach
Bactria
and
Sogdiana
. The satrap of the former was
Stasanor
, who had managed to remain neutral
during the conflicts. After the defeat of Nikanor’s army, there was no force in
the east that could have opposed Seleucus. It is uncertain how Seleucus arranged
the administration of the provinces he had conquered. Most satraps had died. In
theory, Polyperchon
was still the lawful successor of
Antipater and the official regent of the Macedonian kingdom. It was his duty to
select the satraps. However, Polyperchon was still allied with Antigonus and
thus an enemy of Seleucus.

Response

Seleucus I coin depicting
Alexander the Great
‘s horse
Bucephalus
.

Antigonus sent his son Demetrius along with 15,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry
to reconquer Babylon. Apparently, he gave Demetrius a time limit, after which he
had to return to Syria. Antigonus believed Seleucus was still ruling only
Babylon. Perhaps Nicanor had not told him that Selucus now had at least 20,000
soldiers. It seems that the scale of Nicanor’s defeat was not clear to all
parties. Antigonus did not know Seleucus had conquered the majority of the
eastern provinces and perhaps cared little about the eastern parts of the
empire.

When Demetrius arrived in Babylon, Seleucus was somewhere in the east. He had
left
Patrocles
to defend the city. Babylon was
defended in an unusual way. It had two strong fortresses, in which Seleucus had
left his garrisons. The inhabitants of the city were transferred out and settled
in the neighboring areas, some as far as Susa. The surroundings of Babylon were
excellent for defense, with cities, swamps, canals and rivers. Demetrius’ troops
started to besiege the fortresses of Babylon and managed to conquer one of them.
The second fortress proved more difficult for Demetrius. He left his friend
Archelaus to continue the siege, and himself returned west leaving 5,000
infantry and 1,000 cavalry in Babylon. Ancient sources do not mention what
happened to these troops. Perhaps Seleucus had to reconquer Babylon from
Archelaus.

Babylonian War

Coin of Lysimachus with an image of a horned Alexander the Great.

Over the course of nine years (311–302 BC), while Antigonus was occupied in
the west, Seleucus brought the whole eastern part of Alexander’s empire as far
as the
Jaxartes
and
Indus Rivers
under his authority.

In 311 BC Antigonus made peace with Cassander, Lysimachus and Ptolemy, which
gave him an opportunity to deal with Seleucus. Antigonus’ army had at least
80,000 soldiers. Even if he left half of his troops in the west, he would still
have a numerical advantage over Seleucus. Seleucus may have received help from
Cossaians, whose ancestors were the ancient
Kassites
. Antigonus had devastated their lands
while fighting Eumenes. Seleucus perhaps recruited a portion of Archelaus’
troops. When Antigonus finally invaded Babylon, Seleucus’ army was much bigger
than before. Many of his soldiers certainly hated Antigonus. The population of
Babylon was also hostile. Seleucus, thus, did not need to garrison the area to
keep the locals from revolting.

Little information is available about the conflict between Antigonus and
Seleucus; only a very rudimentary Babylonian chronicle detailing the events of
the war remains. The description of the year 310 BC has completely disappeared.
It seems that Antigonus managed to conquer Babylon. His plans were disturbed,
however, by Ptolemy, who made a surprise attack in Cilicia.

We do know that Seleucus managed to defeat Antigonus in at least one decisive
battle. This battle is only mentioned in Stratagems in War by
Polyaenus
. Polyaenus reports that the troops of
Seleucus and Antigonus fought for a whole day, but when night came the battle
was still undecided. The two forces agreed to rest for the night and continue in
the morning. Antigonus’ troops slept without their equipment. Seleucus ordered
his forces to sleep and eat breakfast in battle formation. Shortly before dawn,
Seleucus’ troops attacked the forces of Antigonus, who were still without their
weapons and in disarray and thus easily defeated. The historical accuracy of the
story is questionable.

The Babylonian war finally ended in Seleucus’ victory. Antigonus was forced
to retreat west. Both sides fortified their borders. Antigonus built a series of
fortresses along the
Balikh River
while Seleucus built a few cities,
including
Dura-Europos
and
Nisibis
.

Seleucia

The next event connected to Seleucus was the founding of the city of
Seleucia
. The city was built on the shore of
the Tigris probably in 307 or 305 BC. Seleucus made Seleucia his new capital,
thus imitating Lysimachus, Cassander and Antigonus, all of whom had named cities
after themselves. Seleucus also transferred the mint of Babylon to his new city.
Babylon was soon left in the shadow of Seleucia, and the story goes that
Antiochus
, the son of Seleucus, moved the whole
population of Babylon to his father’s namesake capital in 275 BC. The city
flourished until AD 165, when the Romans destroyed it.

A story of the founding of the city goes as follows: Seleucus asked the
Babylonian priests which day would be best to found the city. The priest
calculated the day, but, wanting the founding to fail, told Seleucus a different
date. The plot failed however, because when the correct day came, Seleucus’
soldiers spontaneously started to build the city. When questioned, the priests
admitted their deed.

Seleucus the king

Coin of Antigonus, with the text ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΑΝΤΙΓΟΝΟΥ (king Antigonus).

The struggle between the Diadochi reached its climax when Antigonus, after
the extinction of the old royal line of Macedonia, proclaimed himself king in
306 BC. Ptolemy, Lysimachus, Cassander and Seleucus soon followed. Also,
Agathocles
of Sicily declared himself king
around the same time. Seleucus, like the other four principal Macedonian chiefs,
assumed the title and style of
basileus
(king).

Chandragupta and the eastern provinces

Seleucus soon turned his attention once again eastward. In the year 305 BC,
Seleucus I Nicator went to India and apparently occupied territory as far as the
Indus, and eventually
waged war
with the
Maurya
Emperor
Chandragupta Maurya
:

Always lying in wait for the neighboring nations, strong in arms and
persuasive in council, he [Seleucus] acquired Mesopotamia, Armenia,
‘Seleucid’ Cappadocia, Persis, Parthia, Bactria, Arabia, Tapouria, Sogdia,
Arachosia, Hyrcania, and other adjacent peoples that had been subdued by
Alexander, as far as the river Indus, so that the boundaries of his empire
were the most extensive in Asia after that of Alexander. The whole region
from Phrygia to the Indus was subject to Seleucus. He crossed the Indus and
waged war with
Sandrocottus
, king of the Indians, who
dwelt on the banks of that stream, until they came to an understanding with
each other and contracted a marriage relationship. –
Appian
, History of Rome, The
Syrian Wars
55

Only a few sources mention his activities in India. Chandragupta (known in
Greek sources as Sandrökottos), founder of the
Mauryan empire
, had conquered the Indus valley
and several other parts of the easternmost regions of Alexander’s empire.
Seleucus began a campaign against Chandragupta and crossed the
Indus
. Seleucus’ Indian campaign was, however,
a failure. It is unknown what exactly happened. Perhaps Chandragupta defeated
Seleucus in battle. No sources mention this, however. But as most historians
note, Seleucus appears to have fared poorly as he did not achieve his aims. The
two leaders ultimately reached an agreement, and through a treaty sealed in 305
BC, Seleucus ceded a considerable amount of territory to Chandragupta in
exchange for 500 war elephants, which were to play a key role in the forthcoming
battles, particularly at Ipsus. According to Strabo, the ceded territories
bordered the Indus:

The geographical position of the tribes is as follows: along the Indus
are the Paropamisadae, above whom lies the Paropamisus mountain: then,
towards the south, the Arachoti: then next, towards the south, the Gedroseni,
with the other tribes that occupy the seaboard; and the Indus lies,
latitudinally, alongside all these places; and of these places, in part,
some that lie along the Indus are held by Indians, although they formerly
belonged to the Persians. Alexander [III ‘the Great’ of Macedon] took these
away from the Arians and established settlements of his own, but
Seleucus Nicator
gave them to
Sandrocottus
[Chandragupta], upon terms of
intermarriage and of receiving in exchange five hundred elephants. — Strabo
15.2.9

From this, it seems that Seleucus surrendered the easternmost provinces of
Arachosia
,
Gedrosia
,
Paropamisadae
and perhaps also
Aria
. On the other hand, he was accepted by
other satraps of the eastern provinces. His Persian wife, Apama, may have helped
him implement his rule in
Bactria
and
Sogdiana
. Some modern scholarship suggests that
Seleucus gave away more territory in what is now southern
Afghanistan
, and parts of

Persia west of the
Indus
. This would tend to be corroborated
archaeologically, as concrete indications of Mauryan influence, such as the
inscriptions of the
Edicts of Ashoka
which are known to be located
in, for example,
Kandhahar
in today’s southern Afghanistan.
However, Asoka’s Edicts were inscribed two generations after any territorial
handover by Seleucus and, for this reason, it is equally possible that the land
in which these Edicts are to be found was incorporated into the Mauryan empire
by Bindusara, Chandragupta’s son and successor, or Asoka himself.

Some authors claim that the argument relating to Seleucus handing over more
of what is now southern Afghanistan is an exaggeration originating in a
statement by Pliny the Elder referring not specifically to the lands received by
Chandragupta, but rather to the various opinions of geographers regarding the
definition of the word “India”:

Most geographers, in fact, do not look upon India as bounded by the river
Indus, but add to it the four satrapies of the
Gedrose
, the
Arachotë
, the
Aria
, and the
Paropamisadë
, the
River Cophes
thus forming the extreme
boundary of India. According to other writers, however, all these
territories, are reckoned as belonging to the country of the Aria. — Pliny,
Natural History VI, 23

Also the passage of
Arrian
explaining that
Megasthenes
lived in
Arachosia
with the satrap
Sibyrtius
, from where he traveled to India to
visit Chandragupta, goes against the notion that Arachosia was under Maurya
rule:

Megasthenes lived with Sibyrtius, satrap of Arachosia, and speaks of his
often visiting
Sandracottus
, the king of the Indians. —
Arrian
,
Anabasis Alexandri

v,6

Nevertheless, it is usually considered today that Arachosia and the other
three regions did become dominions of the Mauryan Empire.

The alliance between Chandragupta and Seleucus was probably affirmed with a
marriage (Epigamia).
Chandragupta or his son married the daughter of Seleucus, Cornelia, or perhaps
there was diplomatic recognition of intermarriage between Indians and Greeks. In
addition to this matrimonial recognition or alliance, Seleucus dispatched an
ambassador,
Megasthenes
, to the Mauryan court at
Pataliputra
(Modern
Patna
in
Bihar state
). Only short extracts remain of
Megasthenes’ description of the journey.

The two rulers seem to have been on very good terms, as classical sources
have recorded that following their treaty, Chandragupta sent various presents
such as aphrodisiacs
to Seleucus.

Seleucus obtained knowledge of most of northern India, as explained by
Pliny the Elder
through his numerous embassies
to the Mauryan Empire:

The Hellenistic world view after Seleucus:
ancient world map
of
Eratosthenes
(276–194 BC),
incorporating information from the campaigns of Alexander and his
successors.

The other parts of the country [beyond the
Hydaspes
, the farthest extent of
Alexander’s conquests] were discovered and surveyed by Seleucus Nicator:
namely

• from thence (the
  Hydaspes
  ) to the
  Hesudrus
  168 miles
• to the river
  Ioames
  (Yamuna)
  as much: and some copies add 5 miles more therto
• from thence to
  Ganges
  112 miles
• to
  Rhodapha
  119, and some say, that
  between them two it is no less than 325 miles.
• From it to
  Calinipaxa
  , a great town 167
  miles-and-a-half, others say 265.
• And to the confluent of the rivers
  Iomanes
  and Ganges, where both meet
  together, 225 miles, and many put thereto 13 miles more
• from thence to the town
  Palibotta
  425 miles
• and so to the mouth of the Ganges where he falleth into the sea 638
  miles. — Pliny the Elder, Natural history, Book 6, Chap 21

Seleucus apparently minted coins during his stay in India, as several coins
in his name are in the Indian standard and have been excavated in India. These
coins describe him as “Basileus” (“King”), which implies a date later than 306
BC. Some of them also mention Seleucus in association with his son Antiochus as
king, which would also imply a date as late as 293 BC. No Seleucid coins were
struck in India thereafter and confirm the reversal of territory west of the
Indus to Chandragupta.

Seleucus may have founded a navy in the
Persian Gulf
and in the Indian Ocean.

Battle of Ipsus

Tetradrachm of Seleucus from Seleucia. Obverse: the head of
Zeus
, Reverse:
Athena
.

The war elephants Seleucus received from Chandragupta proved to be useful
when the Diadochi finally decided to deal with Antigonus. Cassander, Seleucus
and Lysimachus defeated Antigonus and Demetrius in the
battle of Ipsus
. Antigonus fell in battle, but
Demetrius managed to escape. After the battle, Syria was placed under Seleucus’
rule. He understood Syria to encompass the region from the
Taurus mountains
to
Sinai
, but Ptolemy had already conquered
Palestine
and
Phonicia
. In 299 BC Seleucus allied with
Demetrius and married his daughter
Stratonice
. Stratonice was also the daughter of
Antipater’s daughter
Phila
. Seleucus had a daughter by Stratonice,
who was also called
Phila
.

The fleet of Demetrius managed to destroy Ptolemy’s fleet and thus Seleucus
did not need to fight him.

Seleucus, however, did not manage to enlarge his kingdom to the west. The
main reason was that he did not have enough Greek and Macedonian troops. During
the battle of Ipsus, he had less infantry than Lysimachus. His strength was in
his war elephants and in traditional Persian cavalry. In order to enlarge his
army, Seleucus tried to attract colonists from mainland Greece by founding four
new cities—Seleucia
Pieria and
Laodicea in Syria
on the coast and
Antioch on the Orontes
and
Apameia
in the
Orontes River
valley.
Antioch
became his chief seat of government.
The new Seleuceia was supposed to become his new naval base and a gateway to the
Mediterranean. Seleucus also founded six smaller cities.

It is said of Seleucus that “few princes have ever lived with so great a
passion for the building of cities. He is reputed to have built in all nine
Seleucias, sixteen Antiochs, and six Laodiceas”.

Defeat of
Demetrius and Lysimachus

Coin of Demetrius, with the text ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΔΗΜΗΤΡΙΟΥ (King
Demetrius).

Seleucus nominated his son
Antiochus I
as his co-ruler and viceroy of the
eastern provinces in 292 BC, the vast extent of the empire seeming to require a
double government. In 294 BC Stratonice married her stepson
Antiochus
. Seleucus reportedly instigated the
marriage after discovering that his son was in danger of dying of lovesickness.
Seleucus was thus able to remove Stratonice out of the way, as her father
Demetrius had now become king of Macedonia.

The alliance between Seleucus and Demetrius ended in 294 BC when Seleucus
conquered Cilicia
. Demetrius invaded and easily conquered
Cilicia in 286 BC, which meant that Demetrius was now threatening the most
important regions of Seleucus’ empire in Syria. Demetrius’ troops, however, were
tired and had not received their payment. Seleucus, on the other hand, was known
as a cunning and rich leader who had earned the adoration of his soldiers.
Seleucus blocked the roads leading south from Cilicia and urged Demetrius’
troops to join his side. Simultaneously he tried to evade battle with Demetrius.
Finally, Seleucus addressed Demetrius personally. He showed himself in front of
the soldiers and removed his helmet, revealing his identity. Demetrius’ troops
now started to abandon their leader en massse. Demetrius was finally
imprisoned in Apameia and died a few years later in captivity.

Lysimachus and Ptolemy had supported Seleucus against Demetrius, but after
the latter’s defeat the alliance started to break apart. Lysimachus ruled
Macedonia, Thracia
and
Asia Minor
. He also had problems with his
family. Lysimachus executed his son
Agathocles
, whose wife
Lysandra
escaped to Babylon to Seleucus.

The unpopularity of Lysimachus after the murder of
Agathocles
gave Seleucus an opportunity to
remove his last rival. His intervention in the west was solicited by
Ptolemy Keraunos
, who, on the accession to the
Egyptian throne of his brother
Ptolemy II
(285 BC), had at first taken refuge
with Lysimachus and then with Seleucus. Seleucus then invaded Asia Minor and
defeated his rival in the
Battle of Corupedium
in
Lydia
, 281 BC. Lysimachus fell in battle. In
addition, Ptolemy had died a few years earlier. Seleucus was thus now the only
living contemporary of Alexander.

Administration
of Asia Minor

Silver coin of Seleucus. Greek inscription reads ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΣΕΛΕΥΚΟΥ
(King Seleucus).

Before his death, Seleucus tried to deal with the administration of Asia
Minor. The region was ethnically diverse, consisting of Greek cities, a Persian
aristocracy and indigenous peoples. Seleucus perhaps tried to defeat
Cappadocia
, but failed. Lysimachus’ old officer
Philetairos
ruled
Pergamon
independently. On the other hand,
based on their names, Seleucus apparently founded a number of new cities in Asia
Minor.

Few of the letters Seleucus sent to different cities and temples still exist.
All cities in Asia Minor sent embassies to their new ruler. It is reported that
Seleucus complained about the number of letters he received and was forced to
read. He was apparently a popular ruler. In
Lemnos
he was celebrated as a liberator and a
temple was built to honour him. According to a local custom, Seleucus was always
offered an extra cup of wine during dinner time. His title during this period
was Seleucus Soter (“liberator”). When Seleucus left for Europe, the
organizational rearrangement of Asia Minor had not been completed.

Death and legacy

Seleucus now held the whole of Alexander’s conquests except Egypt and moved
to take possession of Macedonia and Thrace. He intended to leave Asia to
Antiochus and content himself for the remainder of his days with the Macedonian
kingdom in its old limits. He had, however, hardly crossed into the
Thracian Chersonese
when he was assassinated by
Ptolemy Keraunos
near
Lysimachia
September (281 BC).

It seems certain that after taking Macedonia and Thracia, Seleucus would have
tried to conquer Greece. He had already prepared this campaign using the
numerous gifts presented to him. He was also nominated an honorary citizen of
Athens
.

Antiochus founded the cult of his father. A cult of personality formed around
the later members of the Seleucid dynasty and Seleucus was later worshipped as a
son of god. One inscription found in
Ilion
advises priests to sacrifice to
Apollo
, the ancestor of Antiochus’ family.
Several anecdotes of Selecus’ life became popular in the classical world.

See also

• Chronology of European exploration of Asia