VESPASIAN 69AD Aigai in Aeolis Nemean Games Win Apollo Ancient Roman Coin i52676

Item: i52676

Authentic Ancient

Coin of:

Vespasian
–
Roman Emperor
: 69-79 A.D. –

Bronze 18mm (3.19 grams) of
Aigai
in
Aeolis

Magistrate
Apollonis “Nemeonikos” (winner
of the Nemean Games)

Reference: RPC 967
ΟYECΠΑCΙΑΝΟC KAICAP, Laureate head left.
ΕΠΙ ΑΠΟΛΛΩΝΙΟΥ ΝΕΜΕΟΝΙΚΟΥ ΑΙΓΑΕΩΝ, Apollo
standing right, holding taenia and laurel branch.

You are bidding on the exact item pictured,

Authenticity.

In
Greek
and
Roman mythology
,
Apollo, is one of the most
important and diverse of the
Olympian deities
. The ideal of the
kouros
(a beardless youth), Apollo has been
variously recognized as a god of light and the sun; truth and prophecy;
archery
; medicine and healing; music, poetry,
and the arts; and more. Apollo is the son of

Zeus and Leto
, and has a
twin
sister, the chaste huntress
Artemis
. Apollo is known in Greek-influenced
Etruscan mythology
as Apulu. Apollo was
worshiped in both
ancient Greek
and
Roman religion
, as well as in the modern
Greco
–Roman
Neopaganism
.

As the patron of Delphi
(Pythian Apollo), Apollo was an
oracular
god — the prophetic deity of the
Delphic Oracle
. Medicine and healing were
associated with Apollo, whether through the god himself or mediated through his
son Asclepius
, yet Apollo was also seen as a god
who could bring ill-health and deadly
plague
as well as one who had the ability to
cure. Amongst the god’s custodial charges, Apollo became associated with
dominion over
colonists
, and as the patron defender of herds
and flocks. As the leader of the

Muses (Apollon Musagetes) and director of their choir, Apollo
functioned as the patron god of music and
poetry
.
Hermes
created the

lyre for him, and the instrument became a common
attribute
of Apollo. Hymns sung to Apollo were
called paeans
.

In Hellenistic times, especially during the third century BCE, as Apollo
Helios he became identified among Greeks with
Helios
,
god of the sun
, and his sister Artemis
similarly equated with
Selene
,
goddess of the moon
. In Latin texts, on the
other hand, Joseph Fontenrose declared himself unable to find any conflation of
Apollo with
Sol
among the
Augustan poets
of the first century, not even
in the conjurations of
Aeneas
and
Latinus
in
Aeneid
XII (161–215). Apollo and Helios/Sol
remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts until the third
century CE.

Aigai, also Aigaiai (Ancient Greek:
Αἰγαί or
Αἰγαῖαι;
Latin
: Aegae or
Aegaeae;
Turkish
: Nemrutkale or
Nemrut Kalesi) was an
ancient Greek
city in
Aeolis
. Aegae
is mentioned by both
Herodotus

and Strabo

as being a member of the Aeolian dodecapolis. It was also an important sanctuary
of Apollo
.
Aigai had its brightest period under the
Attalid dynasty
that ruled from nearby
Pergamon
in
the 3rd and 2nd century BC.

The remains of the city are located near the modern village of
Yuntdağı Köseler
in
Manisa Province
,
Turkey
. The
archaeological site is situated at a rather high altitude almost on top of
Mount Gün
(Dağı), part of the mountain chain of
Yunt
(Dağları).

History

 

Initially the city was a possession of the
Lydian Empire
and later the
Achaemenid Empire
when it conquered the former. In the early fourth century
BC it became part of the Kingdom of Pergamon. It changed hands from Pergamon to
the
Seleucid Empire
, but was recaptured by
Attalus I

of Pergamon in 218 BC. In the war between
Bithynia

and Pergamon it was destroyed by
Prusias II of Bithynia
in 156 BC. After a peace was brokered by the
Romans
the city was compensated with hundred
talents
. Under the rule of Pergamon a market building and a temple to Apollo
were constructed.

In 129 BC the Kingdom of Pergamon became part of the Roman Empire. The city
was destroyed by an earthquake in 17 AD and received aid for reconstruction from
emperor Tiberius
.

Layout

The city is situated on a plateau at the summit of the steep Gün Dağı
mountain, which can be climbed from the north. The plateau is surrounded by a
wall with a length of 1.5 kilometers. On the eastern side are the remains of the
three-story indoor market with a height of 11 meters and a length of 82 meters.
The upper floor of the Hellenistic building was renovated in Roman times. The
partially overgrown remains of many other buildings are scattered over the site.
These include the
acropolis

which is laid out in terraces, an
odeon
, a
gymnasium
, a
bouleuterion
and the foundations of three temples.

About five kilometers to the east the foundations of a sanctuary of Apollo
are found on the banks of the river which flows around the ruins. It was an
Ionic
order
peripteros
temple from the first century BC. A
cella
which is
six meters high and three
monoliths

Excavation historyy

The first western visitors of Aigai were
William Mitchell Ramsay
and
Salomon Reinach
in 1880. They reported about their visit in the
Journal of Hellenic Studies

and the Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique. They were followed by
Richard
Bohn
and
Carl Schuchhardt
, who examined the site as a part of the excavations in
Pergamon.

Since 2004 the site is being excavated by Ersin Doğer of
Ege
University
in
Izmir
. By 2010 the access road, the bouleuterion, the odeon, shops, numerous
water pipes and large parts of the market hall were uncovered. For the coming
years it is planned to re-erect the market hall’s facade with the original
stones.

The Nemean Games (Greek:
Νέμεα or Νέμεια) were one of the four
Panhellenic Games
of
Ancient Greece
, and were held at
Nemea
every two years (or every third).

With the
Isthmian Games
, the Nemean Games were held both
the year before and the year after the
Ancient Olympic Games
and the
Pythian Games
in the third year of the Olympiad
cycle. Like the Olympic Games, they were held in honour of

Zeus. They were said to have been founded by
Heracles
after he defeated the
Nemean Lion
; another myth said that they
originated as the funeral games of a child named
Opheltes
. However, they are known to have
existed only since the 6th century BC (from 573 BC, or earlier). The winners
received a wreath of wild
celery
leaves from the city of
Argos
.

History

The various legends concerning its origin are related in the argumenta
of the
Scholiasts
to the Nemea of
Pindar
, with which may be compared
Pausanias
, and
Apollodorus
. All these legends, however, agree
in stating that the Nemea were originally instituted by the
Seven against Thebes
in commemoration of the
death of Opheltes
, afterwards called Archemorus. When
the Seven arrived at Nemea, and were very thirsty, they met
Hypsipile
, who was carrying Opheltes (Grk
Ὀφέλτης), the child of the priest of

Zeus and of
Eurydice
. While she showed to the heroes the
way to the nearest well, she left the child behind lying in a meadow, which
during her absence was killed by a
dragon
. When the Seven on their return saw the
accident, they slew the dragon and instituted funeral games to be held every
third year. Other legends attribute the institution of the Nemean games to
Heracles
, after he had slain the
Nemean Lion
; but the alternative tradition was
that he had either revived the ancient games, or at least introduced the
alteration by which they were from this time celebrated in honour of Zeus.

That Zeus was the god in honour of whom the games were afterwards celebrated
is stated by Pindar. The games were at first of a warlike character, and only
warriors and their sons were allowed to take part in them; subsequently,
however, they were thrown open to all the Greeks. The games took place in a
grove between
Cleonae
and
Phlius
. The various games, according to
Apollodorus, were
horse-racing
,
running in armour in the stadium
,
wrestling
,
chariot racing
and
discus
,
boxing
,
spear-throwing
and
archery
, to which we may add
musical
contests. The prize given to the
victors was at first a chaplet of
olive
-branches, but afterwards a chaplet of
green celery
. The presidency at these games and the
management of them belonged at different times to Cleonae,
Corinth
, and
Argos
, and from the first of these places they
are sometimes called the Cleonaean games. The judges who awarded the prizes were
dressed in black robes, and an instance of their justice, when the
Argives
presided, is recorded by Pausanias.

Respecting the time of the year at which the Nemean games were celebrated,
the Scholiast on Pindar merely states that they were held on the 12th of the
month of
Panemos
, though in another passage he makes a
statement which contradicts this assertion. Pausanias speaks of winter Nemea,
and distinguishes them from others which were held in summer. It seems that for
a time the celebration of the Nemea was neglected, and that they were revived in
Olympiad
51.4 (573 BC), from which time
Eusebius
dates the first Nemead. Henceforth
they were for a long time celebrated regularly twice in every Olympiad, viz. at
the start of every second Olympic year in the winter, and soon after the start
of every fourth Olympic year in the summer. About the time of the
Battle of Marathon
it became customary in
Argolis
to reckon according to Nemeads.

The Hellenistic Stadion (with a vaulted entrance tunnel dated to about 320
BC, according to Stephen G. Miller, 2001, pp. 90–93) has recently been
discovered: the Games, under Macedonian control, returned to Nemea at the end of
the 4th century BC. In 208 BC
Philip of Macedonia
was honoured by the Argives
with the presidency at the Nemean games, and
Quintius Flamininus
proclaimed at the Nemea the
freedom of the Argives. The emperor
Hadrian
restored the horse-racing of boys at
the Nemea, which had fallen into disuse. But after his time they do not seem to
have been much longer celebrated, as they are no longer mentioned by any of the
writers of the subsequent period.

The program
of the Nemean Games

The gymnic part

The participants to these parts competed in the
nude
.

• The
  Stadion
  A foot race which was about 178
  meters at Nemea
  .
• The
  Diaulos
  Twice the
  Stadion
  foot race, about 355 meters at
  Nemea
  .
• The
  Hippios
  Twice the
  Diaulos
  foot race, about 710 meters at
  Nemea
  .^[13]
• The
  Dolichos
  A long distance running race. The
  exact length of this race is uncertain; it could have been 7, 10, 20 or 24
  times round the
  stadium
  .^[14]
• The
  Hoplitodromos
  A
  Diaulos
  foot race with the competitors
  wearing helmets
  , a
  bronze
  covered
  hoplon
  and initially
  metal

  greaves
  .

• The
  Pyx
  A boxing-like game. In order to protect
  themselves and to do more damage the opponents bound their hands and wrists
  with long leather strips. The first to get knocked out or acknowledge defeat
  would lose.
• The
  Pankration
  A blend of boxing and wrestling
  with very few rules. Again the first to go knock-out or acknowledge defeat
  would lose.
• The
  Pale
  Wrestling from an upright position.
  The goal was to throw the opponent on the ground three times.
• The
  Pentathlon
  This pentathlon consisted of the
  stadion
  , a game of wrestling or
  pale
  , javelin-throwing, discus-throwing and
  long-jump.

The equestrian part

Taking place in a
hippodrome
, these were the only games where
women
could take part, not because they were
allowed to ride, but because it was the owner of a horse or chariot –
rather than the rider or charioteer – who was considered the victor. This even
allowed cities
to participate by funding equestrian
teams.

So far no ancient
hippodrome
has been recovered, so the given
lengths are assumptions.

• The
  Tethrippon
  chariots, with four horses
  racing a distance of 8400 meters or 5.25 miles.
• The
  Synoris
  chariots, with two horses racing a
  distance of 5600 meters or 3.5 miles.
• The
  Kélēs
  , a horseback race over a distance of
  4200 meters or 2.5 miles.

The modern Nemean
Games

The Society for the Revival of the Nemean Games was founded in 1994, after
more than 20 years of archaeological excavation at Nemea. The contemporary
games, held every four years since 1996, are a form of popular education in
history, as well as a counter to the commercialism of the modern Olympics. Races
are organized according to age and gender, open to international participation.
No medals are awarded, only crowns of palm branches and wild celery.

In 2008, some 600 people clad in tunics raced barefoot in the ruins of the
ancient stadium on June 21. Two races were staged for the runners aged from 10
to 80, one of 100 metres (110 yards) and the other of 7.5 kilometres (4.7 mi).
The most striking feature of this attempt was the revival of the Hoplitodromos
race.

Titus Flavius Vespasianus, known in English as Vespasian (November

17 9
AD –

June 23

79AD), was a

Roman

Emperor
who reigned from 69 AD until his death in 79 AD. Vespasian was the

founder of the short-lived

Flavian dynasty

, which ruled the

Roman

Empire
between 69 AD and 96 AD He was succeeded by his sons

Titus
(79–81) and

Domitian

(81–96).

Vespasian descended from a family of

equestrians

which rose into the

senatorial

rank under the emperors of the

Julio-Claudian dynasty

. Although he attained the

standard succession

of public offices, holding the

consulship

in 51, Vespasian became more reputed as a successful military

commander, partaking in the

Roman invasion of Britain

in 43, and subjugating the

Judaea province

during the

Jewish rebellion

of 66. While Vespasian was preparing to besiege the city of

Jerusalem

during the latter campaign, emperor

Nero committed

suicide, plunging the Roman Empire into a year of

civil war

known as the

Year of the Four Emperors

. After

Galba
and

Otho perished in

quick succession,

Vitellius

became emperor in mid 69. In response, the armies in

Egypt

and Judaea themselves declared Vespasian emperor on

July 1
. In his

bid for imperial power, Vespasian joined forces with

Gaius Licinius Mucianus

, the governor of

Syria
, who led

the Flavian forces against Vitellius, while Vespasian himself gained control

over Egypt. On

December

20
, Vitellius was defeated, and the following day, Vespasian was

declared emperor by the

Roman

Senate
.

Little factual information survives about Vespasian’s government during the

ten years he was emperor. His reign is best known for financial reforms

following the demise of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, the successful campaign

against Judaea, and several ambitious construction projects such as the

Colosseum
.

Upon his death on

June 23
,

79, he was

succeeded by his eldest son Titus.

//

 Family

and early career

Vespasian was born in

Falacrina

, in the

Sabine
country

near Reate. His father,

Titus Flavius Sabinus

, was an

equestrian

who worked as a

customs

official in the province of

Asia

and a money-lender on a small scale in

Aventicum
,

where Vespasian lived for some time. His mother,

Vespasia Polla

, was the sister of a

Senator
.

After prompting from his mother, Vespasian followed his older brother, also

called

Titus Flavius Sabinus

, into public life. He served in the army as a military

tribune
in

Thrace
in 36.

The following year he was elected

quaestor

and served in Crete

and Cyrene

. He rose through the ranks of Roman public office, being elected

aedile
on his

second attempt in 39 and

praetor
on

his first attempt in 40, taking the opportunity to ingratiate himself with the

Emperor Caligula

.

In the meantime, he married

Domitilla the Elder

, the daughter of an equestrian from Ferentium. They had

two sons, Titus

Flavius Vespasianus
(b. 41) and

Titus Flavius

Domitianus
(b. 51), and a daughter,

Domitilla

(b. 39). Domitilla died before Vespasian became emperor.

Thereafter his mistress,

Caenis
, was his

wife in all but name until she died in 74.

Upon the accession of

Claudius
as

emperor in 41, Vespasian was appointed

legate
of

Augusta Legio II

, stationed in

Germania
,

thanks to the influence of the Imperial

freedman

Narcissus

.

 Invasion

of Britannia

In 43, Vespasian and the II Augusta participated in the

Roman invasion of Britain

, and he distinguished himself under the overall

command of

Aulus Plautius

. After participating in crucial early battles on the rivers

Medway

and Thames

, he was sent to reduce the south west, penetrating through the modern

counties of Hampshire

,

Wiltshire
,

Dorset
,

Somerset
,

Devon
and

Cornwall

with the probable objectives of securing the south coast ports and harbours

along with the tin mines of Cornwall and the silver and lead mines of Somerset.

Vespasian marched from

Noviomagus Reginorum

(Chichester)

to subdue the hostile

Durotriges

and Dumnonii

tribes

[1]
,

captured twenty oppida (towns, or more probably

hill forts
,

including Hod

Hill
and

Maiden Castle

in

Dorset
). He

also invaded Vectis

(the Isle of Wight

), finally setting up a fortress and legionary headquarters at

Isca Dumnoniorum

(Exeter).

These successes earned him triumphal regalia (ornamenta triumphalia) on

his return to Rome.

 Continued

political career

Vespasian was elected

consul
for the

last two months of 51, after which he withdrew from public life. He came out of

retirement in 63 when he was sent as governor to

Africa Province

. According to

Tacitus

(ii.97), his rule was “infamous and odious” but according to

Suetonius

(Vesp. 4), he was “upright and, highly honourable”. On one

occasion he was pelted with

turnips
.

Vespasian used his time in North Africa wisely. Usually governorships were seen

by ex-consuls as opportunities to extort huge amounts of money to regain their

wealth that they had spent on their previous political campaigns. Corruption was

so rife, that it was almost expected that a governor would come back from these

appointments with his pockets full. However, Vespasian used his time in North

Africa making friends instead of money; something that would be far more

valuable in the years to come. During his time in North Africa, he found himself

in financial difficulties and was forced to mortgage his estates to his brother.

To revive his fortunes he turned to the

mule trade and

gained the nickname mulio (mule-driver).

Returning from Africa, Vespasian toured

Greece
in

Nero‘s retinue, but

lost Imperial favour after paying insufficient attention (some sources suggest

he fell asleep) during one of the Emperor’s recitals on the

lyre, and found

himself in the political wilderness.

 Great

Jewish Revolt

However, in 66, Vespasian was appointed to conduct the

war

in Judea
.

A revolt there had killed the previous governor and routed

Licinius

Mucianus
, the governor of

Syria

, when he tried to restore order. Two legions, with eight cavalry

squadrons and 10 auxiliary cohorts, were therefore dispatched under the command

of Vespasian to add to the one already there. His elder son, Titus, served on

his staff. During this time he became the patron of

Flavius Josephus

, a Jewish

resistance leader turned Roman agent who would go on to write his

people’s history in

Greek

. In the end, thousands of Jews were killed and many towns destroyed by

the Romans, who successfully re-established control over Judea. They took

Jerusalem in 70
. He is

remembered by Jews as a fair and humane official, in contrast to the notorious

Herod the Great

.

Josephus

wrote that after the Roman

Legio X Fretensis

accompanied by Vespasian destroyed Jericho on

June 21
,

68, he took a

group of Jews who could not swim (possibly

Essenes
from

Qumran
),

fettered them, and threw them into the

Dead Sea
to

test its legendary

buoyancy
.

Sure enough, the Jews shot back up after being thrown in from boats and floated

calmly on top of the sea.

 Year

of Four Emperors

After the death of Nero in 68, Rome saw a succession of short-lived emperors

and a year of civil wars

. Galba

was murdered by Otho
,

who was defeated by

Vitellius
.

Otho’s supporters, looking for another candidate to support, settled on

Vespasian.

According to Suetonius, a prophecy ubiquitous in the Eastern provinces

claimed that from Judaea would come the future rulers of the world. Vespasian

eventually believed that this prophecy applied to him, and found a number of

omens,

oracles
, and

portents

that reinforced this belief .

He also found encouragement in Mucianus, the governor of Syria; and, although

Vespasian was a strict disciplinarian and reformer of abuses, Vespasian’s

soldiers were thoroughly devoted to him. All eyes in the East were now upon him.

Mucianus and the Syrian legions were eager to support him. While he was at

Caesarea

, he was proclaimed emperor (July

1, 69
),

first by the army in Egypt

under

Tiberius Julius Alexander

, and then by his troops in Judaea (July 11

according to Suetonius, July 3 according to Tacitus).

Nevertheless,

Vitellius
,

the occupant of the throne, had Rome’s best troops on his side — the veteran

legions of Gaul
and

the Rhineland
.

But the feeling in Vespasian’s favour quickly gathered strength, and the armies

of Moesia
,

Pannonia
,

and

Illyricum

soon declared for him, and made him the de facto master of

half of the Roman world.

While Vespasian himself was in Egypt securing its

grain supply

, his troops entered Italy from the northeast under the

leadership of

M. Antonius Primus

. They defeated Vitellius’s army (which had awaited him in

Mevania
) at

Bedriacum

(or Betriacum), sacked

Cremona
and

advanced on Rome. They entered Rome after furious fighting. In the resulting

confusion, the Capitol was destroyed by fire and Vespasian’s brother Sabinus was

killed by a mob.

On receiving the tidings of his rival’s defeat and death at

Alexandria
,

the new emperor at once forwarded supplies of urgently needed grain to Rome,

along with an edict or a declaration of policy, in which he gave assurance of an

entire reversal of the laws of Nero, especially those relating to

treason
.

While in Egypt he visited the Temple of

Serapis
,

where reportedly he experienced a

vision

. Later he was confronted by two labourers who were convinced that he

possessed a divine power that could work

miracles
.

 Vespasian

as emperor

 Aftermath

of the civil war

Vespasian was declared emperor by the Senate while he was in Egypt in

December of 69 (the Egyptians had declared him emperor in June of 69). In the

short-term, administration of the empire was given to

Mucianus

who was aided by Vespasian’s son,

Domitian
.

Mucianus started off Vespasian’s rule with tax reform that was to restore the

empire’s finances. After Vespasian arrived in Rome in mid-70, Mucianus continued

to press Vespasian to collect as many taxes as possible.

Vespasian and Mucianus renewed old taxes and instituted new ones, increased

the tribute of the provinces, and kept a watchful eye upon the treasury

officials. The Latin

proverb
“Pecunia

non olet” (“Money does not smell”) may have been created when he had

introduced a

urine tax

on public toilets. By his own example of simplicity of life — he

caused something of a scandal when it was made known he took his own boots off —

he initiated a marked improvement in the general tone of society in many

respects.

In early 70, Vespasian was still in Egypt, the source of Rome’s grain supply,

and had not yet left for Rome. According to

Tacitus
, his

trip was delayed due to bad weather.

Modern historians theorize that Vespasian had been and was continuing to

consolidate support from the Egyptians before departing.

Stories of a divine Vespasian healing people circulated in Egypt.

During this period, protests erupted in Alexandria over his new tax policies and

grain shipments were held up. Vespasian eventually restored order and grain

shipments to Rome resumed.

In addition to the uprising in Egypt, unrest and civil war continued in the

rest of the empire in 70. In Judea, rebellion had continued from 66. Vespasian’s

son, Titus
,

finally subdued the rebellion with the capture of Jerusalem and destruction of

the

Jewish Temple

in 70. According to

Eusebius

, Vespasian then ordered all descendants of the royal line of

David
to be

hunted down, causing the Jews to be persecuted from province to province.

Several modern historians have suggested that Vespasian, already having been

told by Josephus that he was prophesied to become emperor whilst in Judaea, was

probably reacting to other widely-known Messianic prophecies circulating at the

time, to suppress any rival claimants arising from that dynasty.

In January of the same year, an uprising occurred in

Gaul and Germany,

known as the second

Batavian Rebellion

. This rebellion was headed by

Gaius Julius Civilis

and

Julius Sabinus

. Sabinus, claiming he was descended from

Julius Caesar

, declared himself emperor of Gaul. The rebellion defeated and

absorbed two Roman legions before it was suppressed by Vespasian’s

brother-in-law,

Quintus Petillius Cerialis

, by the end of 70.

 Arrival

in Rome and gathering support

In mid-70, Vespasian first came to Rome. Vespasian immediately embarked on a

series of efforts to stay in power and prevent future revolts. He offered gifts

to many in the military and much of the public.

Soldiers loyal to Vitellius were dismissed or punished.

He also restructured the Senatorial and Equestrian orders, removing his enemies

and adding his allies.

Regional autonomy of Greek provinces was repealed.

Additionally, he made significant attempts to control public perception of his

rule.

 Propaganda

campaign

Many modern historians note the increased amount of propaganda that appeared

during Vespasian’s reign.

Stories of a supernatural emperor who was destined to rule circulated in the

empire.

Nearly one-third of all coins minted in Rome under Vespasian celebrated military

victory or peace.

The word vindex was removed from coins so as not to remind the public of

rebellious Vindex
.

Construction projects bore inscriptions praising Vespasian and condemning

previous emperors.

A temple of peace was constructed in the forum as well.

Vespasian approved histories written under his reign, ensuring biases against

him were removed.

Vespasian also gave financial rewards to ancient writers.

The ancient historians who lived through the period such as

Tacitus
,

Suetonius
,

Josephus

and

Pliny the Elder

speak suspiciously well of Vespasian while condemning the

emperors who came before him.

Tacitus admits that his status was elevated by Vespasian, Josephus identifies

Vespasian as a patron and savior, and Pliny dedicated his Natural Histories

to Vespasian, Titus.

Those who spoke against Vespasian were punished. A number of stoic

philosophers were accused of corrupting students with inappropriate teachings

and were expelled from Rome.

Helvidius Priscus

, a pro-republic philosopher, was executed for his

teachings.

 Construction

and conspiracies

Between 71 and 79, much of Vespasian’s reign is a mystery. Historians report

that Vespasian ordered the construction of several buildings in Rome.

Additionally, he survived several conspiracies against him.

Vespasian helped rebuild Rome after the civil war. He added the temple of

Peace and the temple to the Deified Claudius.

In 75, he erected a colossal statue of

Apollo
, begun

under Nero
, and he

dedicated a stage of the theater of Marcellus. He also began construction of the

Colosseum.

Suetonius claims that Vespasian was met with “constant conspiracies” against

him.

Only one conspiracy is known specifically, though. In 78 or 79, Eprius Marcellus

and

Aulus Caecina Alienus

attempted to kill Vespasian. Why these men turned

against Vespasian is not known.

 Military

pursuits and death

In 78,

Agricola

was sent to

Britain

, and both extended and consolidated the Roman dominion in that

province, pushing his way into what is now

Scotland
.

On June 23 of the following year, Vespasian was on his deathbed and expiring

rapidly, he demanded that he be helped to stand as he believed “An emperor

should die on his feet”. He died of an intestinal inflammation which led to

excessive diarrhea

. His purported great wit can be glimpsed from his last words; Væ,

puto deus fio, “Damn. I am already

becoming a god

!”

 Views

on Vespasian

Vespasian was known for his wit and his amiable manner alongside his

commanding persona and military prowess. He could be liberal to impoverished

Senators and equestrians and to cities and towns desolated by natural calamity.

He was especially generous to men of letters and

rhetors

, several of whom he pensioned with salaries of as much as 1,000 gold

pieces a year.

Quintilian

is said to have been the first public teacher who enjoyed this imperial favor.

Pliny the Elder

‘s work, the

, was written during Vespasian’s reign, and dedicated to

Vespasian’s son Titus.

Vespasian distrusted philosophers in general, viewing them as unmanly

complainers who talked too much. It was the idle talk of philosophers, who liked

to glorify the good times of the

Republic

, that provoked Vespasian into reviving the obsolete penal laws

against this profession as a precautionary measure. Only one however,

Helvidius Priscus

, was put to death, and he had repeatedly affronted the

Emperor by studied insults which Vespasian had initially tried to ignore, “I

will not kill a dog that barks at me,” were his words on discovering Priscus’s

public slander.

Vespasian was indeed noted for mildness when dealing with political

opposition. According to Suetonius, he bore the frank language of his friends,

the quips of pleaders, and the impudence of the philosophers with the greatest

patience. Though Licinius Mucianus, a man of notorious unchastity, presumed upon

his services to treat Vespasian with scant respect, he never had the heart to

criticize him except privately and then only to the extent of adding to a

complaint made to a common friend, the significant words: “I at least, am a

man.”

He was also noted for his benefactions to the people, much money was spent on

public works and the restoration and beautification of Rome: a new forum, the

Temple of Peace, the public baths and the great show piece, the

Colosseum
.

In the modern

Italian language

, the urinals are called “vespasiano”, probably in reference

to a tax the emperor placed on urine collection (useful due to its ammoniac

content; see

Pay toilet
).

 In

later literature

• Marcus Didius Falco

  novels

• The Course of Honour, a novel by

  Lindsey Davis

• Edward Rutherfurd

  ‘s

  historical fiction

  novel

  Sarum

  contains an account of one the protagonists’ (a

  Celtic
  chief)

  meeting Vespasian during his campaign through southern Britannia.

• Vespasian, as legate under

  Aulus Plautius

  , is a regular secondary character in

  Simon Scarrow

  ‘s

  Eaglegle

  series.